The Deep Context of Melancholy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

The Deep Context of Melancholy - Essay Example Melancholia is differentiated with other feelings that somehow relates to its state and divulged with its causations and effects. Three remarkable works that relates the state of melancholia, sharing similar frameworks are Sigmund Freud’s â€Å"Mourning and Melancholia†, Julia Kristeva’s â€Å"On the Melancholic Imaginary† and Dorothea Lansky’s â€Å"When it is a Black life†. Sigmund Freud, in his article â€Å"Mourning and Melancholia†, throws some light on the nature of melancholia by comparing it with mourning. His work is a psychological approach into apprehending the deeper context of the two interrelated human phenomenon. Mourning and melancholia are both human emotions that exhibit similar outward symptoms. However, the causation and the long term effects of these human tendencies differ in the deeper level. While the human experience of mourning and melancholia portrays similar outward symptoms, they are different with diverse directions of consequences. He points out that the fruits, features and the underlying causes of the two conditions are more or less the same. Some common features include painful dejection, cessation of interest in the outside world, loss of the ability to love, and inability to perform activities. However, while the lowering of the self-regarding feelings is a feature of melancholia, it is not present in mourning (F reud 243). Furthermore, while the condition of mourning includes the patient’s consciousness of losing someone, the state of melancholia is withdrawn from the object-loss concept (Freud 244). Therefore, in melancholia, it is difficult to understand what is absorbing the patient while the reason is apparent in mourning.

Respirstion Lab Report Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Respirstion - Lab Report Example The hypothesis for the experiment is that if the substrate concentration of Succinate increases, then the rate of aerobic respiration increases was not confirmed. The conclusion of the experiment was discovered that succinate concentration and enzyme concentration does affect the rate of aerobic respiration. Introduction Aerobic respiration occurs in living things and is a process through which food substances are broken down to release energy in form of ATP. This process takes place in the mitochondria and requires energy. Unlike the process of fermentation where food substrate is broken down in absence of oxygen where only a lesser number of ATP are produced, aerobic respiration results in production more energy in form of ATP. The first part of aerobic respiration (glycolysis) is similar to that of fermentation and takes place in the cytoplasm. Pyruvic acid, a three carbon molecule is formed through a series of reactions on glucose molecules. Two molecules of ATP are released abse nce of oxygen as anaerobic respiration takes place (Apte et al 37). The pyruvic acid then proceeds to the next stage. C6H12O6 CH3COCOOH (Pyruvic acid) The second phase of aerobic reaction takes place in the matrix of the mitochondria. ... Objectives To investigate the factors affecting the rate of aerobic respiration Hypothesis If the substrate concentration of Succinate increases, then the rate of aerobic respiration increases. Procedure The materials needed for this experiment includes test tubes, lima beans mitochondrial suspension, succinate, DCPIP, buffer and paraffin, In this experiment, four small test-tubes were obtained and labeled B, 1, 2, 3, 4 test tubes B was blank. In the blank test tube, 4.6 ml of the buffer, 0.1ml of succinate acid and 0.3ml of mitochondria suspension was placed. The tube was then covered with a film of paraffin and inverted to ensure that the contents mixed completely. A micropipette was then used to transfer 1ml of the mixture to a square corvette. The machine was then set to read transmittance. The wavelength of the machine was set at 600nm. The corvette was placed in an open spectrophotometer. The transmitter was set to 100 where the blank was used as the baseline. In tube 1, 2 and 3, DCPIP, mitochondria suspension and the buffer were placed in measurements indicated in the table below. Succinate was not added at first Reagents Tube 1 Tube 2 Tube 3 Buffer 4.4ml 4.3ml 4.2ml DCPIP 0.3ml 0.3ml 0.3ml Mitochondrial suspension 0.3ml 0.3ml 0.3ml Succinate 0ml 0.1ml 0.2ml Succinate was then quickly added to the test tubes which were then covered with paraffin and placed in the corvette. The corvette was wiped on the outside and then placed in the samples holder ensuring that the arrow pointed downwards. The lid of the machine was closed and the readings for each sample recorded at different times. The spectrometer was reset after every five minutes using the blank as the baseline. The content of the

Development of Water Treatment Plant

Development of Water Treatment Plant ASSIGNMENT Access to safe drinking-water is essential to health, a basic human right and a component of effective policy for health protection. The nature and form of drinking-water standards may vary among countries and regions. There is no single approach that is universally applicable. A number of governmental and non-governmental agencies provide guidance on safeguarding the quality of public water supplies. The documents according to which the treatment plant for disaster struck region is established are:- GUIDELINES FOR DRINKING WATER QUALITY by WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION in GENEVA08 GUIDANCE FOR SAFEGUARDING THE QUALITY OF PUBLIC WATER SUPPLIES by DRINKING WATER INSPECTORATE, U.K. SPHERE MINIMUM STANDARDS FOR HUMANITARIAN RELIEF Here we present a brief description of what role these have in providing safe water to the public. WHO Guidelines for drinking water: Guidelines for Drinking-water Quality explains requirements to ensure drinking-water safety, including minimum procedures and specific guideline values, and how those requirements are intended to be used. The Guidelines describe reasonable minimum requirements of safe practice to protect the health of consumers and/or derive numerical guideline values for constituents of water or indicators of water quality. WHO analyzes the water quality on the following aspects:- 1. Microbial aspect: Securing the microbial safety of drinking-water supplies is based on the use of multiple barriers, from catchment to consumer, to prevent the contamination of drinking-water or to reduce contamination to levels not injurious to health. Faecally derived pathogens are the principal concerns in setting health-based targets for microbial safety. In addition to faecally borne pathogens, other microbial hazards (e.g., guinea worm [Dracunculus medinensis], toxic cyanobacteria and Legionella) may be of public health importance under specific circumstances. The parameters most commonly measured to assess microbial safety are as follows: E. coli: zero E. coli per 100 ml of water Residual chlorine: in the range of 0.2-1 mg/litre. 2. Chemical aspect: A number of chemical contaminants have been shown to cause adverse health effects in humans as a consequence of prolonged exposure through drinking-water. The prescribed concentration of certain chemicals in purified water is as under: 3. Radiological aspects :-The health risk associated with the presence of naturally occurring radionuclides in drinking-water should also be taken into consideration, although the contribution of drinking-water to total exposure to radionuclides is very small under normal circumstances. Formal guideline values are not set for individual radionuclides in drinking-water. 4. Acceptability aspects :- Water should be free of tastes and odours that would be objectionable to the majority of consumers. Changes in the normal appearance, odour or taste of a drinking-water supply may signal changes in the quality of the raw water source or deficiencies in the treatment process and should be investigated. Regulations according to Drinking Water Inspectorate, UK: The water quality regulations set legal standards for water, which must be met by water companies in England and . Many of the standards are based on World Health Organization guidelines and include very wide safety margins. The regulations and standards are on the DWI web site at www.dwi.gov.uk. As the guardians of drinking water quality, the main role of the Drinking Water Inspectorate is to enforce the regulations and check that water companies in England supply water that is safe to drink and meets the standards set in the regulations. Sphere Minimum Standards For: The Sphere Project was launched in 1997 by a group of humanitarian NGOs and the Red Cross and Red Crescent movement. The main objective of water supply and sanitation programmes in disasters is to reduce the transmission of faeco-oral diseases and exposure to disease-bearing vectors through the promotion of good hygiene practices, the provision of safe drinking water and the reduction of environmental health risks and by establishing the conditions that allow people to live with good health, dignity, comfort and security. Key indicators:- There are no faecal coliforms per 100ml at the point of delivery. Water is treated with a disinfectant so that there is a free chlorine residual at the tap of 0.5mg per litre and turbidity is below 5 NTU Average water use for drinking, cooking and personal hygiene in any household is at least 15 litres per person per day The maximum distance from any household to the nearest water point is 500 metres Till now we have discussed the parameters and respective standards prescribed by various organizations for drinking water quality. We now turn to our problem OBJECTIVE: To construct a water treatment plant for a disaster struck area in the Far east for a population of about 1500 internally displaced people that agrees with the provisions of WHO guidelines, U.K. Regulations and Sphere minimum standards and to discuss the likely microbial challenges that the plant might face and their potential impact on water quality. Details of the water source: The only available water source is a limestone spring fed pond whose chemical analysis report is as under:- All the other parameters are believed to be in accordance with the U.K. regulations The desired plant supplies water to 1500 people and according to the Sphere Minimum Standards, an individuals daily need of water is approximately 15 litres. This means that the capacity of the plant must be about 22500 litres per day (22.5 kilolitres/day) Our prime objective in designing the treatment plant is to: Level the pH to about 6.5-7.5 Bring the concentration of aluminium to below 0.2mg/l Benzene level below 0.01 mg/l Faecal coliform count to about zero per 100ml All the above parameters are as per the WHO norms, UK regulations and Sphere standards. The rest of the parameters are in accordance with the UK Regulations and hence need not be treated. Next we design a Water Treatment plant as per the prescribed guidelines with a capacity of 25 kilolitres per day. LAYOUT OF THE TREATMENT PLANT We now present an elaborate overview of the plant and the methods incorporated in it Stage 1 Water leaves the limestone spring fed pond and is pumped into the two raw water reservoirs each of capacity 25kilolitres. The purpose of having two reservoirs is that when one needs to be cleaned the plant can still operate continuously. Stage 2 Pre-chlorination is done at this stage in the two raw water reservoirs. It is done by using a dosing pump that supplies sodium hypochlorite. As a result disinfection begins. Stage 3 Water from the raw water reservoir enters the Flash Mixer where a coagulant Poly Aluminum Chloride (PAC) is added to bind any small particles. Sodium carbonate is also added to control the pH and also to remove the hardness caused by limestone. The dosed water is now retained for a short period to enable the binding process to start before the water passes to the Clarification Stage. Stage 4 The water dosed with coagulant is discharged into the bottom of the clarifier and as the water flows upwards so the particles bound together by the PAC form a sludge blanket just below the surface of the water. The sludge blanket traps more particles as the water flows through it to the outlet channels which span the clarifier at the water surface. From time to time some of the sludge blanket is drawn off and discharged to the sludge processing plant. Stage 5 The clarified supernatant water is then sent to therapid gravity filters, containing a gravel base and a bed of granular activated carbon which removes any remaining fine particles. The granular activated carbon is also extremely useful in removing organic compounds such as benzene which can cause taste problems in the supply. Stage 6 To provide an effective barrier againstfaecal coliforms, the filtered water is then passed through amembrane filtration system. It also retains the flocculants of aluminium hydroxide that are formed due to excess concentration (concentration greater than 2mg/litre) of aluminium in water. In this microfiltration plant the water is allowed to pass through six different compartments each containing a mesh (or screen) of pore size 0.2 microns (1 micron = one thousandth of a millimeter), readily available in the market. Feed water passes through the walls of this membrane producing a filtrate free of faecal coliform and other suspended solids. Stage 7 Following filtration the filtered water is further dosed with chlorine to ensure adequate disinfection. It remains in contact with a high dose of chlorine for a minimum of six hours in a covered contact tank. Chlorine disinfects the water by killing bacteria and viruses. Stage 8 After leaving the contact tank, the final water is dosed with Sulphur Dioxide to reduce the chlorine residual to its set point before being sent for distribution. This way we obtain clean and safe water for supply to the customers. A major problem we encountered in the limestone spring fed pond was the grazing of farm animals particularly goats that led to microbial contamination of the pond. Grazing animals can negatively affect water quality through erosion and sediment transport into surface waters, through nutrients from urine and feces dropped by the animals. The two nutrients of primary concern relating to animal production are N and P. Nitrogen is of concern because high concentrations in drinking water in the NO3 form cause methemoglobinemia (blue baby disease), whereas other forms of N (primarily nitrite, NO2) are considered to be potentially carcinogenic. Phosphorus in the PO4 form is of concern because it causes eutrophication of surface water bodies. The next major problem is of the migratory aquatic birds that arrive during a three week period in November. During migratory movements, birds carry pathogens that can be transmitted between species at breeding, wintering, and stopover places where numerous birds of various species are concentrated. During these yearly migrations, birds have the potential of dispersing microorganisms that can be dangerous for public as well as animal health. Birds are believed to be responsible for the wide geographic distribution of various pathogens, including viruses (e.g., West Nile, Sindbis, influenza A, Newcastle), bacteria (e.g., borrelia, mycobacteria, salmonellae), and protozoa (e.g., cryptosporidia). Bacteria, viruses, and protozoa when ingested in drinking water can cause a number of infectious waterborne diseases such as cholera, typhoid, hepatitis, and infectious gastrointestinal diseases like cryptosporidiosis and giardiasis. Treatment Some microbial contaminants can be removed by water treatment coagulation and filtration processes. Disinfection has been proven effective against bacteria and viruses, and the method of Membrane Filtration is sufficient to remove the Cryptosporidium. A very essential condition of an effective treatment plant is to establish a well developed watershed or a wellhead protection program. Controlling or eliminating microbial sources before they contaminate a water supply will go a long way toward simplifying treatment and reducing costs associated with a contaminated supply. This is the proposed plant for the treatment of water which the community can operate and which provides a healthy and safe drinking water. Apart from this the people should be aware enough to utilize optimum amount of water and the people should consider it as their moral responsibility to prevent contamination of water by their activities.

Studt guide :: essays research papers

Unit #4- Study Guide, Chapter #3 Answer the following questions, IN YOUR OWN WORDS. Of course, this is an â€Å"open book† assignment. 1. Everyone who lives in the United States lives in the same society and, also lives in the same culture. These concepts refer to different aspects of the United States. Using the United States as an example, explain the differences between the concepts of â€Å"society† and â€Å"culture.† Society sets boundaries for our lives. The United States has set out laws that we must abide by and follow. The United States is not different from other countries because of our social status, roles, groups, social institutions, and everyone's surrounding areas has established beliefs or values. Our cultures are ver different because of our languages, mannerisms, values, norms and religion. It is difficult for a foreigner to come to the United States and learn new mannerisms, norms, and a new language. A foreigner now has to adapt to a custom he sees totally different from what might have been normal to him back at his native country. 2. Explain the differences between innovations, discoveries, inventions and diffusion. Give examples of each of these concepts in order to clarify the differences between them. There are all different but somewhat similar. One can't really work without the other in life. Innovations are ways to achieve a certain goal. An example is money. Drug dealers use illegitimate ways to achieve this goal. In the long run they will discover that they reap what they sow. Meaning that they might end up in jail and arrested. Discoveries are a new way of seeking reality as a second process for change. Inventions are combinations of existing elements and materials to form new ones. People invent new drugs for the sick or some people combine drugs just to get a fix or high. The diffusion is that later on in their lives it will affect them greatly or other people might learn for them. 3. Although it would seem that symbolic interactionists would be more interested in language than the proponents of structural functionalism and conflict theory, each of the perspectives has an interest in this important cultural component. Explain why language is important to symbolic interactionists and elaborate on the interest that the other two perspectives would have in language. Language is a system of symbols that can be strung together for the purpose of communicating abstract thought.

Patron-Client Politics Essay

In most countries, political participation is an important aspect in government and citizen relationship. Citizen participation is very essential in any country to ensure that the government is properly delivering its responsibilities to the people. This is why there are many avenues that are created and some that are still being explored, which will make people to actively participate in political issues. However, there are some regimes wherein the channel for political participation is not open. Being the case, there is a different way by which people could participate in politics without the direct involvement that is most observable in a democratic form of governance. This is greatly exemplified by the concept of patron-client politics. Patron-client politics is defined as the relationships wherein patrons that belong to the high status in society provide protection and resources to lower status clients. In doing so, the patrons ask the clients for their votes and support in exchange for what they give. The power that the patrons have is very beneficial in negotiating their interests with the government. These informal hierarchies of patron-client networks provide ordinary people a contact with formal politics (Wai-man, 2007). Patrons are often composed of â€Å"government officials, landlords, employers, ethnic leaders, and party leaders† (Wai-man, 2007). There are instances that patrons also act as intermediary agents of control that paved the way for the socialization between the people and the state (Wai-man, 2007). On the other hand, clients are those people that belong in the lower status of the society. These people do not possess abundant resources unlike the patrons, which is why they are dependent upon the patrons in order to provide for their needs. In most developing countries, the majority of the citizens are regarded as clients while the small portion of their population is the higher class patrons. According to Grabowski, Self, and Shields (2007), patron-client politics is based on illegitimacy. This is because such network is grounded on the face-to-face interactions between patrons and clients rather than the formal adherence to rules and regulations. In order for this kind of political structure to work, the ruling elites that mostly compose the patrons should have control over government institutions. In this case, the patrons could influence the government to make policies that are for their own benefit. This is why the clients are put in a disadvantageous position because the allocation of resources is dependent upon the patrons. They could only get some of these resources if they follow and support their patrons. Most of the time, the clients usually acquire an unfair portion of these resources that the patrons give. Being the case, the clients are always under the control of the patrons. Nevertheless, there are also advantageous effects that the clients could achieve from such political set-up. The clients can get the necessary resources in order to sustain their needs. Moreover, this is also a way by which the client could be able to participate in political processes. The formal political structure of the state of Mexico is applicable in the development of patron-client relationship within the country. 10 percent of the Mexican population belongs to the upper class that is composed of the country’s business executives and government leaders. The lower sector of the country, which consists of the majority of the citizens are made up of industrial workers, informal-sector employees and peasants (The Library of Congress Country Studies, 1996). This kind of social structure supports the concept of patron-client politics because the elite class holds the resources as well as the power that enables them to put the lower class under their control. They could easily give resources to the lower class that needs it in order to get their support in return. Furthermore, unequal distribution of income within Mexico’s society proves that patron-client relationship already exists in the country. Patron-client relationship is not only dependent on the political situation of the country but it is also linked with the social structure of the country. This interaction exists when a small portion of the society controls the resources and the political power in order to dominate others. The presence of the lower class that requires the necessary aid for their everyday living also further supports this kind of relationship. As such, the political make-up and situation in Mexico clearly proves the existence of patron-client politics.

Personal Reflection Paper Essay

I have learned a lot of important information throughout this course of Critical and Creative Thinking. I have learned mainly what critical thinking is and how it works. I think that it is important to be a critical thinker. I am going to share with you some information that I learned during this course that helped me use critical thinking more effectively. Critical thinking is the ability to think clearly and rationally. When you use critical thinking you can examine and analyze questions, issues, situations, and information of all kinds. It is important to use critical thinking because it helps you evaluate all decisions. When you are using critical thinking you are using different combinations of skills. By using critical thinking, it helps you gain a better understanding, concentrate, and deal with frustrations that are blocking your thinking. There are six different stages of critical thinking. These stages are the unreflective thinker, challenged thinker, beginner thinker, practicing thinker, and advanced thinker. It is important to know what stage you are at. By knowing what stage you are at it will help you distinguish what you need to do in order to move to the next stage. In the beginning of this course I placed myself as a stage one thinker, the unreflective thinker. I placed myself here because I was deceiving myself about the effectiveness of my thinking. I always thought that my thinking was fine. I had not identified the problems that were affecting my thinking. Since taking this course I would have to identify myself as the practicing thinker. I know that I am still not where I need to be but I am continuing to push myself to practice. I have realized that practice is a must and I am  not giving up. In order to move to the next stage, the advanced thinker, I have got to see that practicing has made me a better thinker. I also have to keep at practicing even when I get tired of practicing and lose my motivation. One important thing that I learned during this course is the difference between an issue and a problem. A problem is a situation that you regard as unacceptable, and an issue is a matter in which people disagree on to some extent. I always looked at everything as a problem. It is important to distinguish between the two so that you know how to approach it and solve it. You have to use your critical thinking in order to identify the problem or issue and know how to come up with a solution. To solve a problem you have to figure out what action to take that is the best way to change the situation. When you are resolving an issue you have to decide what viewpoint is more reasonable. I also learned three key strategies that can help stimulate my imagination. These three key strategies are use free association, visualize the solution, and construct pro and con arguments. There are other strategies but these are the three that best suite me. It is important to use imagination because it helps you to be more open minded. In order to be a critical thinker you have to be open minded. By being open minded it helps you to look at all possibilities. It also helps you considered other people’s thoughts and opinions. It is always important to consider other people’s ideas and opinions because there is always room for improvement. I had to realize that I am not always right and that I do not know everything in order to be more open minded. I have learned a lot in this course as you can see. This is just a summary of what all I have learned. I think this course will help me be a more effective writer and thinker. I am going to keep on practicing until I reach the stage of master thinker. Even when I have reached that final stage I am going to continue to practice and use critical thinking. As we learned in this course, â€Å"We can always use room for improvement.† I think that this course is an important course to help you be able to succeed. I have really  enjoyed this class and I have learned a lot. References: The Art of Thinking: A guide to Critical and Creative thought, Tenth Edition, By Vincent Ryan Ruggiero

And Also

And Also And Also And Also By Maeve Maddox Brian Shone writes: I work for the NHS and I attend many meetings during the week, a common term used throughout each meeting is â€Å"and also† this I believe is incorrect.  This term is also used in my Catholic Church liturgy; The Lord be with you, and also with you.  Should we be using two words together that mean the same? Although the addition of â€Å"also† after â€Å"and† is often verbose, the two words do not mean quite the same thing. And is a conjunction. It joins words, phrases and clauses. Also is an adverb meaning â€Å"in the same manner, in addition, as well.† It’s useful when some sort of contrast is wanted. Compare the following pairs: This new policy is intended to stop pilfering and save money. This new policy is intended to stop pilfering and also save money. Remodeling will improve safety and attract new customers. Remodeling will improve safety and also attract new customers. In the first pair, the two ideasstopping pilfering and saving moneyare so closely related that the and is sufficient. In the second pair, the connection between the two ideasimproving safety and attracting new customersis not perhaps as obvious, so the also has a purpose. The line from the Catholic liturgy quoted above is the ICEL (International Commission on English in the Liturgy) rendering of Latin Dominus vobiscum, et cum spiritu tuo, literally, â€Å"The Lord be with you, and with your spirit.† This particular translation happens to be one of many that have come under fire by critics of an English rendering of the Catholic Missal made in the Sixties. When the dust settles, the line will probably be amended to â€Å"and with your spirit.† The speakers in the business meetings who throw in also after and may feel that the extra word adds weight to whatever it is they are saying. Generally speaking, â€Å"also† is redundant following â€Å"and.† Want to improve your English in five minutes a day? Get a subscription and start receiving our writing tips and exercises daily! Keep learning! Browse the Grammar category, check our popular posts, or choose a related post below:100 Exquisite Adjectives225 Foreign Phrases to Inspire YouUsing "zeitgeist" Coherently

Sudden Infant Death Syndrome essays

Sudden Infant Death Syndrome essays Imagine the thought of a mother going in to her childs room and kissing her baby good night. Expecting to hear the gentle breath of her baby all that she hears is silence. Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS) is the sudden death of an infant under one year of age which remains unexplained after a thorough case investigation, including performance of a complete autopsy, examination of the death scene, and review of the clinical history (Willinger, et al., 1991). More children die of SIDS in a year that all who die of cancer, heart disease, pneumonia, child abuse, AIDS, cystic fibrosis and muscular dystrophy combined. Many researchers now believe that babies who die of SIDS are born with one or more conditions that make them especially vulnerable to stresses that occur in the normal life of an infant, including both internal and external influences. SIDS occurs in all types of families and is largely indifferent to race or socioeconomic level. SIDS is unexpected, usually occurring in otherwise apparently healthy infants from 1 month to 1 year of age. Most deaths from SIDS occur by the end of the sixth month, with the greatest number taking place between 2 and 4 months of age. A SIDS death occurs quickly and is often associated with sleep, with no signs of suffering. More deaths are reported in the fall and winter and there is a 60-to-40-percent male-to-female ratio. A death is diagnoses as SIDS only after all other alternatives have b een eliminated: SIDS is a diagnosis of exclusion (Willinger, et al., 1991). Risk factors are those environmental and behavioral influences that can provoke ill health. Any risk factor may be a clue to finding the cause of a disease, but risk factors in and of themselves are not causes. Researchers now know that the mothers health and behavior during her pregnancy and the babys health before birth seem to influence the occurrence of SIDS, but these variables a...

Champion Services, Inc. - Software Development Proposal Essay -- Busines

Champion Services, Inc., like all other companies, desires to be the best. When it comes to delivering high quality programming and service to the people of the northwest United States, Champion Services, Inc. feels that there is no one better. Champion Services, Inc. currently provides a basic Internet portal for its customers. This portal provides basic information and the ability to request more information by automating an email message. The portal provides no customer account information and provides no transactional capabilities. Champion Services, Inc. has decided to provide to its customers a fully functional Internet portal. This portal will be fully secured and require the customer to enter a username and password to gain access. The Internet portal will allow the customer to review and pay any outstanding balance, review account history, and modify their current service by selecting from various programming packages. Champion Services, Inc. has tasked the proposal team with drafting a preliminary proposal that meets the company's desired needs. The proposal team will identify the software development and administration issues currently facing the company, identify possible alternatives for developing the new application, recommend a course of action, and justify that recommendation. To help Champion Services, Inc. understand what it needs to meet the stated goals, it is important to identify the issues the company currently faces. To successfully develop the new Internet portal application for its customers, Champion Services, Inc. must address three main issues. These areas of concern include the current network infrastructure, the skills and e... ... middle of paper ... ... for developing the new application, recommended a course of action, and justified that recommendation. The proposal team suggests the use of PHP and MySQL to build the new customer Internet portal application. Both of these technologies provide Champion Services, Inc. with the flexibility and scalability to take the customer experience to a higher level of quality. Reference Page The PHP Group (2006). PHP: Hypertext Preprocessor. Retrieved August 19, 2006, from http://www.php.net/. University of Rhode Island (2005). What is MySQL? Retrieved August 19, 2006, from http://www.uri.edu/home/help/www/mysql.html. The Trustees of Indiana University (2006). What is Java? Retrieved August 19, 2006, from http://kb.iu.edu/data/acwo.html. Refsnes Data (2006). ASP.NET Introduction. Retrieved August 19, 2006, from http://www.w3schools.com/aspnet/aspnet_intro.asp.

Four Major Problems Faced by the US Economy Currently Based on Current Term Paper

Four Major Problems Faced by the US Economy Currently Based on Current Media Reports - Term Paper Example The 2008 financial crisis of United States affected the economies throughout the world and the macroeconomic factors were shaken up. The issue started with the debt crisis when the borrowers were unable to service their loans and thus faced difficulty in paying back the loans. This resulted in the housing market crisis when people ended up with bad loans which in turn resulted in people being deprived off their homes. The credit crunch also led to damage to investors confidence and investors and savers were unwilling to inject the money into the economy which resulted in shortage of money and cash, and this also resulted in the rise of unemployment. US Federal Debt/Deficit Since the financial crisis struck in the year 2008, the US debt has been very high. According to a recent news article, the United States debt is nearly as much as the total value of all its goods and services produced in the US during the financial year. CNBC reports that the total value of the US debt is $14.96 t rillion which means that the United States external debt as a percentage of its GDP stand at 99.46% (CNBC). This is a very high figure and indeed a very dangerous one because high leverage of debt can be very risky. As a matter of fact, it is suggested that every person born in the United States has a debt of $47,664 in the very second it is born. The figure on the left shows that the public debt in the US will surpass the 17 trillion mark by the end of 2012, and indicates how the debts are constantly on the rise, which can be a very alarming situation for the people. (US Government Spending) Not just the rising debts, but the economy also faces the difficulty of constant budget deficits which means the outlay of the United States government is greater than the receipts and this means that the US government has to search for sources to raise the finances. Since the past three years, the US federal deficit has been around the $1300 billion mark. (US Government Spending) Issue of Rais ing Finance As mentioned above, United States economy has become highly leveraged and the debt to GDP percentage is nearly touching the 100 percent mark. This increases the riskiness of the economy and damages the confidence of investors and savers to inject their money into the economy. Investors ask for high returns to take on risky projects and some do not even settle for higher returns due to the fact the people are naturally risk averse. A credit rating agency has downgraded the credit rating of the United States and has gone down from AA+ to AA. Since the credit rating is going down, the investors and savers are reluctant to inject their money into the economy (Yahoo!). This creates a problem for the United States because the US government needs to borrow the money to cover up for the budget deficits they are facing each year. When the government has to inject money into the economy and it is unable to increase its budget receipts, then it has to look for other sources of mone y to cover that deficit and this source is usually to borrow money. With the credit rating going down, less number of savers is ready to save their money and thus it creates a shortage of money for the US government. Not just to finance the budget deficit, the government also faces difficulty in raising the money to service or repay their previous loans. Housing The housing bubble emerged in the United States in the year 2005 when the property prices started to rise and they rose at quite high rates. This increased the

Apple Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Apple - Assignment Example In addition, the discussion of the assignment also tends to focus on current business performance of Apple pertaining to its financial, operational, managing and strategic background of the company. With regard to the major competitive scenario, business organisations have been often identified to involve significant strategic characteristics in comparison to their competitors. In relation to the current emerging trend in the consumer electronics and computer Hardware and software manufacturing business industry, organisations are often considered attaining significant growth by delivering wide range of streamlined products and services to the target customers. The exceptional strategic measures along with striving pace in research and development have substantially enabled the industry to contribute a large portion in the global economy. The striving business practices and performance of the market leaders have been critically identified to obtain a large financial growth over the last two decades in the global consumer electronics and computer manufacturing industry. In relation to the current industry trend, the industry has witnessed to simultaneously perform in line with the unabated economic transition. According to the current statistical reports, global consumer electronics manufacturing industry has been recorded to US$ 226bn over the past five years with an annual growth of 0.7% in 2014 (IBISWorld, â€Å"Global Consumer Electronics Manufacturing: Market Research Report†). In addition, the strategic measures and practices including wider brand differentiation along with unique mode of business operations have substantially enabled the electronic manufacturing market leaders to achieve continuous success than other business sectors. In relation to the current trend in this respective industry, aggressive expansion of business units across

Statement of the Problem for my dissertation Research Paper

Statement of the Problem for my dissertation - Research Paper Example A number of research studies about the RET programs have shown variations in changes and radical improvements relating to the teachers. There is some form of agreement that RET programs are excellent for the instructors as it broadens the intellect during study and empowers the teachers with sufficient acquaintance on how to work on research. The NGSS practices have been established to be the best to educators and students since they enhance learning through students’ engagements such as enabling them to vigorously explore the scientific knowledge. This knowledge is supposed to be acquired in class by practicing actual scientific or engineering research (NGSS Lead States, 2013). Most of the findings put forward that science teachers are required to go through comprehensive assessment to establish if they have embraced research as an imperative factor that improves their teaching practices. (Musante, 2006). Background on RET programs What are RET programs? In the course of RET programs teachers discover the way scientists do research in STEM fields. In addition, teachers play a role in the environment of scientific research (Grove, Dixon, Pop, 2009, Ononye et al., 2007). RET programs more often than not distribute teachers in research laboratories for a period that ranges from six weeks to two months to make possible their participation in scientific research in the true world (Pop, Dixon & Grove, 2010). The (STEM) fields as well as faculty of computer science and engineering in colleges to make information and acquaintance associated to these fields accessible to students. Features of RET programs Teacher participation in the RET program is very important in terms of teachers’ knowledge and scientific research. Research Experiences for Teacher (RET) has stirred up professional development amongst teachers and students themselves. In effect, it has improved the teaching and learning practices in classroom. RET programs vary considerably depending o n the specialization of the teachers. Moreover, other research methods such as discussions, observations and interviews are geared toward improving the understanding of scientific research practice while some focus on basic skills of solutions for mathematical and scientific problems (Schulte, 2009). Research on RETs As in every profession, research and experience still remain a fundamental characteristic in the field of education. Research in this case comprises the knowledge and skills bestowed by observation and proceedings gained by exploring a given aspect. Most of the findings suggest that science teachers are required to go through comprehensive assessment to determine if they have embraced research as an important factor that improves their teaching practices. This is because most teachers are conversant with class tests in contrast to research practices, which are perceived to expose them to many skills needed during actual professional exploration (Goreham, 2010). Effects on teacher’ practice Several studies have shown that teachers who used an online support system are at an advantage of translating their research experience into their own classroom teaching after participating in the RET (Hardre, Nanny, Refai, & Slater, 2010). It is worth noting; however, after the teachers had research

Categories of Legitimate Reservation Term Paper

Categories of Legitimate Reservation - Term Paper Example However, every scientific experiment needs validation. The Categories of Legitimate Reservation are those set of rules, which validate or invalidate the relationship and connection between facts, hypothesis and conclusions. Their roots particularly lie in Aristotle’s logical fallacies (Dettmer, 2007). Broadly speaking, the purpose of the categories of Legitimate Reservation includes testing the validity of the cause and effect trees (Dettmer, 2007). The paper shall attempt to describe the eight categories of Legitimate Reservation and the application of these categories. Lastly, it shall examine the relationship between these categories. The first rule of testing the logic of any cause and effect tree includes clarity. For many people, miscommunication can result in less clarity. If the listener does not comprehend the speaker or understand the importance of the statement of the speaker, then there is no mutual agreement upon a certain factor (Dettmer, Year). This category demands more explanation of a certain fact so that the hypothesis can be validated easily. Clarity reservation, therefore, requires further explanation of a certain thing (Goldratt-TOC Ltd EU Home, n.d). For example, if the statement is, ‘It is hot in this room’. The statement is unclear because there is no ‘cause’ of the ‘effect’ of the level of temperature in the room. Therefore, the sentence requires clarity. The cause would perhaps include ‘It is hot in this room because the air conditioner is not working’. This is a complete statement. The existence of the entity forms the second CLR. If a certain statement is not fully complete or structurally sound or at the face value does not seem valid to the listener, then the entire logic is wrong. Therefore, for an entity to exist, it has to be complete and grammatically sound. The term â€Å"economic growth† cannot exist on its own.  

Organizational Behavior Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 7

Organizational Behavior - Essay Example In every year starting from 1970 and ending at 1979, the number of references remained 20. The number of references approximately doubled with the start of the year 1980 i.e. the number of references increased from 20 to 41. In the decade between 1980 and 1989, each year saw a total number of references of 41. The number of references did not increase from 41 until the start of the year 1990, when another 21 references were added to the total to make them 62. It is noteworthy that the addition in the number of references at the junction between the end of 1979 and the start of 1980 is exactly equal to the addition in the number of references at the interface between 1989 and 1990. Each transition was equal to the addition of 21 references to the total. Starting from the year 1990 till the year 1999, the number of references remained stable at 62. Right at the point of transition between 1999 and 2000, the number of references approximately showed a five-fold increase, thus becoming 3 00 in the year 2000 from only 62 in the year 1999. The number of references remained 300 in each year between 2000 and 2009. Overall, the increase of the number of references from 1960 to 2009 occurred in such a way that makes the pattern of stairs. Every decade from 1960 to 2009 represents one tread of the stair and every riser of this staircase is a point of transition between one decade and another. Overall, there has been an increase in the number of references from 1960 to 2009, with the number remaining constant for each decade between the two years. It is also noteworthy that the references increased by small numbers in the starting years, but suddenly shot up at the junction between the year 1999 and the year 2000. With the onset of the 21st century, there occurred an immense transition in the number of references. In just a matter of fifty years, the number of references that were non-existent in the year 1960 and remained so

The Industrial Revolution in England Personal Statement

The Industrial Revolution in England - Personal Statement Example But this is the story of the working class. Enclosure meant that the poor, rather than the rich, constituted landless labourers. The working class had therefore lost their independence, their soul and dignity to work. But my quality of life despite this may have improved in general. The Industrial Revolution changed Manchester from a rural, and agricultural society, to an urban and industrial society. The Industrial Revolution has bought significant benefits. The spinning jenny has reduced the amount of work needed to produce yarn, the Industrial Revolution has also bought to us the steam engine, and the power driven machinery in the textile industry, in our mills, for steam-powered looms for weaving. Importantly, families are now able to generate a greater income, as the wife is now able to stay at home and work the fields whilst the husband can work freely in the factory. But a Manchester once made up of peasant farmers, enjoying rural England, became unfortunately a Manchester soaked in sap and tar that so vehemently attacked our lungs. Despite technological advances, Manchester factories turned into breeding grounds for slave-driven worker standards. Revenue took over from efficiency; employer standards took priority over employee standards. But improvements in travel conditions, such as stronger bridges and roads, and the other inventions that we can now exploit, such as the st

Organizational Behavior Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 7

Organizational Behavior - Essay Example In every year starting from 1970 and ending at 1979, the number of references remained 20. The number of references approximately doubled with the start of the year 1980 i.e. the number of references increased from 20 to 41. In the decade between 1980 and 1989, each year saw a total number of references of 41. The number of references did not increase from 41 until the start of the year 1990, when another 21 references were added to the total to make them 62. It is noteworthy that the addition in the number of references at the junction between the end of 1979 and the start of 1980 is exactly equal to the addition in the number of references at the interface between 1989 and 1990. Each transition was equal to the addition of 21 references to the total. Starting from the year 1990 till the year 1999, the number of references remained stable at 62. Right at the point of transition between 1999 and 2000, the number of references approximately showed a five-fold increase, thus becoming 3 00 in the year 2000 from only 62 in the year 1999. The number of references remained 300 in each year between 2000 and 2009. Overall, the increase of the number of references from 1960 to 2009 occurred in such a way that makes the pattern of stairs. Every decade from 1960 to 2009 represents one tread of the stair and every riser of this staircase is a point of transition between one decade and another. Overall, there has been an increase in the number of references from 1960 to 2009, with the number remaining constant for each decade between the two years. It is also noteworthy that the references increased by small numbers in the starting years, but suddenly shot up at the junction between the year 1999 and the year 2000. With the onset of the 21st century, there occurred an immense transition in the number of references. In just a matter of fifty years, the number of references that were non-existent in the year 1960 and remained so

How Will Bitcoin and Linden Dollars Affect the Economy Essay Example for Free

How Will Bitcoin and Linden Dollars Affect the Economy Essay The common issues with ‘Bitcoin’ and ‘Linden Dollars’ are that there have been suspicions these virtual currency schemes are operating as Ponzi schemes, there is a high level of anonymity with regards to these virtual currency schemes and that there is only one regulator who oversees the system. The issue of Ponzi schemes are justified for virtual currency schemes such as ‘Bitcoin’ and ‘Linden Dollars’ but for different reasons. For ‘Bitcoin’ it greatly resembles a Ponzi scheme where people can convert real currency into Bitcoins but when they want to convert Bitcoins to currency they would need to find another person who wants to buy their Bitcoins. For ‘Linden Dollars’, Second Life Banks started offering very high interest rates on deposits which led to many users in Second Life converting real currency into Linden Dollars to receive these returns. The high level of anonymity is also another issue that virtual currency schemes face as there are many risks that users of these schemes may encounter. Due to real economic transactions in Second Life, there are many people and business that have created accounts on Second Life to obtain real profits. Creating accounts on Second Life require little information and from the creation of accounts, players in the game do not know who they are actually performing transactions with as they are performing transactions behind computer screens and would not be able to judge the credibility of the other player. Due to having only one regulator who oversees the system, these virtual currency systems are decentralised and display information irregularity in the system. For ‘Bitcoin’, due to the complexity of the system not all users completely understand how it works which leads to risks some users take without realising the consequences of those risks. Creation of Monetary Value The creation of monetary values using virtual currency such as ‘Bitcoin’ and ‘Linden Dollars’ can lead to risks and implication for users of virtual currency. The creation of these two different currencies will affect their economy in different ways due to the reason for the creation of monetary value and the amount of monetary value being created. For Bitcoins, the supply of Bitcoins is not dependant on any monetary policy but instead is based on users performing a specific activity. This scheme by Bitcoin was designed so that the money supply would develop at a specific pace and in order to receive more Bitcoins, harder algorithms would need solved. Monetary Policy Implications There are many monetary policy implications from the use of virtual currency schemes both inside and outside of the virtual world. The most impactful implications from the use of these virtual currency schemes would be outside of the virtual world if these currency schemes became widely accepted throughout the world. Monetary policy implications that may arise outside the virtual world would be the way that the Central Bank would introduce policies for price stability, financial stability and payment system stability. Virtual currency schemes could have a massive impact on price stability if they substantially modify the quantity of money, impact on the velocity of money and if there is an interaction between the virtual currencies and the real economy. These factors will create different implications for current monetary policies such as exchange rates and interest rates. If the supply of money in the real world were to decrease due to virtual currency being accepted as legal tender, it will result in a change in the exchange rate between real currency and virtual currency. Virtual currency schemes could also impact on the financial stability if there is a strong connection between the real economy, high volumes of virtual currency traded and if virtual currency is widely accepted. This will impact the financial stability if the virtual currency is unstable due to lack of maturity, confidence, low volumes traded, speculation and cyberattacks. Virtual currency schemes could impact on the payment system stability as they are not regulated or overseen by a public authority figure. This will expose users to credit, liquidity, operational and legal risks due to the currency being virtual currency which has the possibility of defaulting. Payments using real currency do not face the same situation as Central Bank money is used and the Central Bank has no default risk.

The abnormal psychology

The abnormal psychology Abnormality has become one of the most essential components in various movies such as The Dark Knight. The researcher thinks The Dark Knight includes numerous of characters that would be diagnose with some type of psychological disorder. However, the researcher examines Batman to determine the type of psychological disorder uncovered in the movie The Dark Knight. The reason why the researcher chose to examine Batman is because not often people think of Batman as having a psychological disorder, but evidence from the movie suggests that he does have some type of mental disorder. The purpose of this paper is to gain knowledge about how psychiatrist, clinicians, and disorders analyst diagnose and treat different types of psychological disorders. The researcher will first give a brief synopsis of The Dark Knight. Next, the researcher will evaluate Batman in preparation in diagnosing him with a psychological disorder. Then, the researcher will diagnose Batman with a psychological disorder . Finally, the researcher will determine treatment options for Batman. Synopsis In the movie The Dark Knight, Batman faces his arch nemesis, the Joker. Batman along with Commissioner James Gordon and District Attorney Harvey Dent unite to take on crime on the streets of Gotham City. In the beginning, the three appears to be effective, but they soon find themselves prey to one of the Jokers diabolical plans to bring forth havoc to Gotham City. The Joker and a mob of men, wearing clown masks, break into a bank. One by one, the clowns begin to kill each other to get a larger share of the money. After each clown was killed, only one clown was left standing. This clown reveled himself as The Joker. The Joker then places a grenade into the bankers mouth and boards the bus, leaving a string attached to the pin. As The Joker leaves, the pin pops out and gas surrounded the bank. The Joker joins a long line of school buses leaving the scene as the police arrive. Later Commissioner Gordon and Batman arrive at the bank the Joker held up to inspect the scene (Newgen, 2008). Throughout the movie, The Joker went on several rampages and was able to take District Attorney Harvey Dent and his girlfriend, Officer Attorney Rachel Dawes, captive into two different locations. They both were tied up and strapped to explosives that were expected to detonate in a short amount of time. The Joker gives Batman the locations of the two, saying that he only has time to save one of them. Batman chose to go after Rachel, while Commissioner Gordon went after Harvey Dent. As Batman arrives at the address, he finds Harvey Dent instead. Prior to Batman saving Harvey Dent, a half of his face caught on fire. Meanwhile, Commissioner Gordon arrives at the other address. Before he could enter into the door, the building exploded killing Rachel (Newgen, 2008). After the death of Rachel, Harvey Dent became ruthless and took on the name Two-Face. Two-Face and The Joker teamed up for a brief segment of the movie. Two-Face seeks to uncover the identity of the cop that kidnapped Rachel. He learns that Detective Reamierz was the cop that orchestrated Rachels kidnapping. He then killed Detective Reamierz with a single shot to the head. At the same time, two large ferries were set for departure to get away from the chaos. One ferry inhabited with criminals; the other ferry packed with innocent citizens. Out of nowhere, The Jokers voice is heard from over the loudspeaker in both ferries. He informs them that each ferry is set with explosives. Each ferry has the detonator for the other ferry. The Joker threatens both the criminals and the innocents citizens that one ferry must destroy the other ferry by midnight are both ferries would be destroyed. Neither passenger of the ferries chose to use the detonator to destroy the other ferry. Just as The Jo ker was about to set the detonator, Batman fires a dart, knocking the detonator out of his hand. Batman left to find Two-Face, while the SWAT team captures the Joker (Newgen, 2008). Assessment The researcher thinks Batman is one of the greatest and darkest comic book characters ever created. Batmans alter ego, Bruce Wayne, is a multibillionaire that is the President and CEO of Wayne Enterprise. As Batman, he dedicates his life protecting Gotham from criminals. Why did Bruce Wayne turn into Batman? One must analyze the origin of Bruce Wayne. Bruce Wayne is the son of Doctor Thomas Wayne and his wife Martha Wayne. According to Batman Origins comic book, Batman experienced two events in his childhood that traumatized him for life. His first traumatic experience was when he accidentally fell into a pit below Wayne Manor. The pit leads into a cave system full of bats. For years afterwards, he would have hallucinations of a large bat repeatedly. The other tragic event happen when Bruce and his parents were walking back home from a movie. Out of nowhere, a mugger shot both his parents. The mugger ran before the authorities arrived. The families butler, Alfred Pennyworth, took in Bruce and became his legal Guardian. Since this moment, Bruce Wayne vowed to fight against crime. This is the reason why Bruce Wayne became Batman (Newgen, 2008). The investigator evaluates Batman by using a technique called naturalistic observation. The naturalistic observation is a method clinicians uses to observe clients in their everyday environments (Cramer, 2009). The researcher examines both Batman and his alter ego Bruce Wayne by observing his behavior and actions in the movie. Batman interpersonal style appears to be hostile and guarded. In the movie, Batman rarely associated with other characters. The tone of Batman voice leads the researcher to believe that he has a lot of anger built inside. As Bruce Wayne, he was seen to be sociable. He was seen escorting one of his female friends to a social gathering. An important element of the movie is Bruce Waynes turmoil over his identity. He believes that being Batman was preventing him from having a normal life. Later in the movie, he accepts that Gotham needs Batman to protect the citizens from criminals. Batman and his alter ego Bruce Wayne are intelligent and skillful. In the movie, t he researcher views both of them using advance equipment to track down criminals. The researcher tends to believes that Batman and Bruce Wayne have different emotions. Bruce Wayne frequently smiles in the movie. However, Batman rarely or never seen smiling, this perhaps is an indicator that he is never happy. Diagnosis The researcher uses the DSM-IV criteria to determining the psychological disorder Batman posses. The DSM-IV is the current version of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (APA, 2002). The researcher believes Batman is suffering with comorbidity or having more than one psychological disorders occurring at the same time. The researcher diagnoses Batman with having posttraumatic stress and dissociative identity disorders. The researcher believes Batman have a serious case of posttraumatic stress disorder because of his reaction from his parents death. Post-Traumatic Stress is an anxiety problem that develops in some people after extremely traumatic events, such as an accident (APA, 2002). A person with Post-Traumatic Stress may suffer with re-experiencing the traumatic event, avoidance, reduced responsiveness, increased arousal, anxiety, and guilt. Batman often have flashbacks when he passes the scene where his parents where murdered. Often his enemies would lure him to the spot of the traumatic event. When possible, he tries to avoid the scene. Batman also feels guilty because of the death of his parents. He revenges his parents death by keeping Gotham safe from criminals (Newgen, 2008). Finally, from observing Batmans actions in the movie, the researcher believes he has dissociative identity disorder. Dissociative Identity Disorder is having two or more separate identities that may not always be aware of each others thoughts, feelings, and behavior. The symptoms for dissociative identity disorder are the presence of two or more distinct identities or personality states, control of the persons behavior recurrently taken by at least two of these identities or personality states, and an inability to recall important personal information (Cramer, 2009). As mentioned before, Batman and his alter ego Bruce Wayne have two different personalities. From watching the movie, the researcher observes Batman being bitter and impatient. However, Bruce Wayne was more impassive and tranquil. Recalling Batmans history, he has experience moments of forgetting the locations of the Batcave (Newgen, 2008). Treatment A combination of cognitive and drug therapy would help with Batmans posttraumatic stress disorder. Clinicians use cognitive therapy to assist patients with identifying and changing their negative thinking of the event. According to a previous case study, cognitive therapy has three goals. The first goal is for patients to identify how the event affects their daily function. The next goal is to help the patient reduce experiencing the event. Normally, clinicians use drug therapy to reduce the occurrence of nightmares, panic attacks, and flashbacks. Along with the drug therapy, clinicians use techniques such as allowing patients to write a story to describe and elaborate on the event. The final goal is to assist patients with forgetting about certain images, in Batman case the gun used to murder his parents (Ehlers Clark, 2008). Similar to posttraumatic stress disorder, therapist uses psychotherapy to help patients with dissociative identity disorder. Clinicians usually try to help the clients recognize fully the nature of their disorder, recover the gaps in their memory, and integrate their sub-personalities into one functional personality (Hunter, 1997). Typically, therapists begin the treatment by bonding with the primary personality and then with each of the sub-personalities. To help Batman therapist would bond with Bruce Wayne because that is Batmans primary personality. Secondly, therapist would help Bruce recover missing pieces of their past. Once Bruce recalls the moments of his childhood that lead him to become Batman, the therapist would finally help him merge the different sub-personalities into a single, integrated identity or a fusion. When the two identities merges together, further therapy is needed to maintain the complete personality and to teach social and coping skills that may help prev ent later dissociations (Cramer, 2009). Conclusion After observing Batman behavior in the movie, the researcher discovers he may have posttraumatic stress disorder and dissociative identity disorder. He was diagnosed with posttraumatic stress disorder because he displayed the following symptoms; nightmares and flashbacks, avoidance, reduced responsiveness, and guilt from his parents murder. The reason why the researcher diagnoses Batman with dissociative identity disorder is that he displays two distinct identities or personality states and suffers from ordinary forgetfulness. The two disorders have similar treatment methods. They both aim towards changing his behavior or thinking. Clinicians uses cognitive therapy to treat posttraumatic stress disorder and uses psychotherapy to treat dissociative identity disorder. Overall, the researcher obtained a better understanding of how clinicians diagnose and treat patients. One limitation was that the movie The Dark Knight never fully captures Bruce Waynes childhood experiences that lead up to him being Batman. However, the prequel to the movie Batman Begins elaborates more on the transitions. Another limitation was, since Batman is a fictional character, the researcher was only able to use observation from watching the movie. The finally limitation was that the researcher was not able to find if Batman was currently getting treatment for his conditions. In future projects, the investigator will do further examination on Batman, to find information about his current treatment status. References APA (2002). DSM-IV-TR. (2002).Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders. Washington, DC : American Psychiatric Association Comer, Ronald. (2009).Fundamentals of abnormal psychology fifth edition. New York : Worth Pub. Ehlers, A., Clark, D. (2008). Post-traumatic stress disorder: The development of effective psychological treatments.Nordic Journal of Psychiatry,6211-18. doi:10.1080/08039480802315608. Hunter, Walter. (1997).The Journal of the American Society for Psychical Research. Washington, DC: Springer Us. Newgen, Heather. (2008, September 4).Superherohype. Retrieved from http://www.superherohype.com/news/featuresnews.php?id=7641

The Royal Hunt of the Sun :: essays papers

The Royal Hunt of the Sun The Royal Hunt of the Sun is a story mainly based on the conquest of Peru by Spain. Along the way it explores many different sub-themes and ideas. Questions are raised about faith, friendship, leadership, greed and two distinctively different ways of life. The two main characters exhibit conflicting views on all the issues. The overthrow of the Peruvian Empire is a phenomenal story as it demonstrates the vulnerability of a society that considered itself almost indestructible. It showed how focused a civilisation can be on one leader, and how simply it can collapse when this leadership is removed. Pizarro recognised this and that is how his small army of almost two hundred conquered a nation of millions. He told his men "One man: that^s all. Get him, the rest collapse." (page 28) The conquest of Peru was a clash between two religions that were immediately very different but similar in principal. Christianity was a religion with a rapidly expanding following. Its leaders virtually granted permission for Christians to kill in order to spread the faith. This occurred in The Royal Hunt of the Sun when the priests inferred that Pizarro should take the life of Attahuallpa so that the Spanish would survive and the Christian belief would spread throughout South America. The priest Valverde said "^the lives of a hundred and seventy of the faithful. Are you going to sacrifice them for one savage?" (page 70) On the other hand the Inca belief was a lot more settled and humane. The Inca God and ruler Atahuallpa claimed "I have priest power^I confess my people of all crimes against the sun." (page 19) They both believed in a supreme being, who would be killed by its enemies and rise from the dead. Pizarro and Atahuallpa came from similar backgrounds but their immediate appearance was quite different. When they came together their similarities became evident and their friendship flourished at an early stage. While Atahuallpa was Pizarro^s captive he said "Make me free. I would fill this room." (With gold) (page 43) However, when Atahuallpa produces the gold Pizarro qualifies his promise thus; " ^Atahuallpa, you must swear to me that you will not hurt a man in my army if I let you go." (page 60) "I will not swear this" Atahuallpa replied. "Three thousand of my servants they killed in the square. Three thousand, without arms. I will avenge them." (page 60) This

:: Papers

The Atkins Diet: Is it healthy? Dr Robert Atkins Born: 17-10-1930 Died: 17-04-2003 [IMAGE]Dr Atkins, the creator of the Atkins Diet. His unconventional theories on nutrition have changed the way Americans think about eating. Atkins low-carbohydrate approach and 4 step program have become an obsession for many people at a time when two thirds of Americans are overweight or obese. But the Atkins diet has its disagreement, some of whom say that its emphasis on high cholesterol foods can make it dangerous. The Atkins diet promises that not only you will lose weight and not be hungry with a low carbohydrate diet, but you’ll also be on the road to better heart health and memory function, as well as other wellness benefits. Dr Atkins’ philosophy is that if you follow his diet and eliminate highly refined carbohydrates, you will:  · Burn fat fast, instead of carbohydrates, and lose weight quickly.  · Stave off hunger between meals because high-protein diets are more satiating than high carbohydrates ones. As protein digested slowly in the system, high protein diets also stabilise blood sugar levels, which can prevent common conditions such as fatigue, depression, headaches, joint and muscular pains.  · Improve your health; because as you burn fat you will eliminate toxins stored in fat cells. The diet plan allows you to eat foods that many dieters have only dreamed about. The diet plan is said to work even if other diets have left you feeling depressed and deprived. The diet Atkins at a glance: * Sets few limits on the amount of food you eat but instead severely restricts the kind of food allowed on your plate: no refined sugar, milk, white rice, or white flour * Allows you to eat foods traditionally regarded as â€Å"rich†: meat, eggs, cheese, and more * Claims to reduce your appetite in the process * On the Atkins diet, you’re eating almost pure protein and fat.

Night World : Secret Vampire Chapter 7

Then you must have had a reason,† Poppy saidflatly. When he looked at her, she shrugged. â€Å"I know you.† She knew him in a way she'd never known anyone. James looked away. â€Å"I didn't have a reason, but there were some †¦extenuating circumstances. You could say I was set up. But I still have nightmares.† He sounded so tired-so sad.It's a lonely world, fullof secrets, poppythought. And he'd had to keep the biggest secret of all from everyone, including her. â€Å"It must have been awful for you,† she said, hardlyaware that she was speaking out loud. â€Å"I mean, all your life-holding this in. Not telling anybody. Pretending†¦Ã¢â‚¬  â€Å"Poppy.† He gave a shiver of repressed emotion.†Don't.† â€Å"Don't sympathize with you?† He shook his head. â€Å"Nobody's's ever understood before.† After a pause he said, â€Å"How can you worry about me? With what you're facing?† â€Å"I guess because -I care about you.† â€Å"And I guess that's why I didn't treat you like Michaela or Jacklyn,† he said. Poppy looked at the sculpted planes of his face, atthe wave of brown hair falling over his forehead like silk †¦and held her breath. Say â€Å"I love you,† she ordered mentally.Say it, you thickheaded male. But they weren't connected, and James didn't givethe slightest sign of having heard. Instead he turned brisk and businesslike. â€Å"We'd better get started.† Hegot up and drew the window curtains shut. â€Å"Sunlight inhibits all vampire powers,† he said in a guest lecturer voice. . Poppy took advantage of the pause to go to the CDplayer. The music had changed to a Dutch club song,which was fine for doing the Netherlands skippydance to, but not very romantic. She punched a but ton and a velvety Portuguese lament began. Then she twitched the sheer hangings around the bed dosed. When she sat down again, she and James were in their own little world, dim and secluded, enclosed in misty eggshell white. â€Å"I'm ready,† she said softly, and James leaned inclose to her. Even in the semidarkness Poppy felt mesmerized by his eyes. They were like windows tosome other place, someplace distant and magical. The Night World, she thought, and tilted her chinback as James took her in his arms. This time the double sting at her neck hurt good. But best was when James's mind touched hers.The feeling of oneness, of suddenly being whole-it spread through her like starshine. Once again she had the sense that they were melting together, dissolving and merging everywhere they touched. She could feel her own pulse echoingthrough him. Closer, loser†¦ and then she felt a pulling-back. James? What's wrong? Nothing,he told her, but Poppy could sense that itwasn't quite true. He was trying to weaken the growing bond between them †¦ but why? Poppy, I just don't want to force you into anything.What we're feeling is-artificial†¦. Artificial? It was the realest thing that she'd everexperienced. Realer than real. In the midst of joy, Poppy felt a surge of hurt anger at James. I don't mean it like that,he said, and there was desperation in the thought.It's just that you can't resist the blood-bond. You couldn't resist it if you hated me. Itisn't fair†¦. Poppy didn't care about fair.Ifyou can't resist it,why are you trying?she asked him triumphantly. She heard something like mental laughter, andthen they were both clinging together as a wave of pure emotion swept them. The blood-bond, Poppy thought when James raisedhis head at last. It doesn't matter if he won't say he loves me-we're bonded now. Nothing can changethat. And in a moment or so she would seal that bondby taking his blood. Try and resistthat,she thought, and was startled when James laughed softly. â€Å"Reading my mind again?† â€Å"Not exactly. You're projecting-and you're verygood at it. You're going to be a strong telepath.† Interesting. . . but right now Poppy didn't feelstrong. She suddenly felt kitten-weak. Limp as a wilting flower. She needed †¦ â€Å"I know,† James whispered. Still supporting her, he started to lift one wrist to his mouth. Poppy stopped him with a restraining hand. â€Å"James? How many times do we have to do thisbefore I-change?† â€Å"Once more, I think,† James said quietly. â€Å"I tooka lot this time, and I want you to do the same. And the next time we do it †¦Ã¢â‚¬  I'll die, Poppy thought. Well, at least I know howlong I have left as a human. James's lips slid back to reveal long, delicate fangs,and he struck at his own wrist. There was something snake like in the motion. Blood welled up, the colorof syrup in a can of cherry preserves. Just as Poppy was leaning forward, lips parted,there was a knock at the door. Poppy and James froze guiltily. The knock came again. In her muddled and weakened state, Poppy couldn't seem to make herself move. The only thought that resounded in her brainwasOh,please. Please don't let it be†¦ The door opened. Phil. Phillip was already speaking as he poked his headin. â€Å"Poppy, are you awake? Mom says-â€Å" He broke off abruptly, then lunged forthelightswitch on the wall. Suddenly the room was illuminated. Oh,terrific,Poppy thought in frustration. Phil waspeering through the filmy draperies around the bed. Poppy peered back at him. â€Å"Whatis going-on?† he said in a voice that would have gotten him the lead role in The Ten Com mandments.And then, before Poppy could gather enough wits to answer, he leaned in and grabbed James by the arm. â€Å"Phil,don't,† Poppysaid. â€Å"Phil, you idiot†¦Ã¢â‚¬  â€Å"We had a deal,† Phil snarled at James. â€Å"And you broke it.† James was gripping Phil's arms now, as ungentlyas Phil was grasping him. Poppy had the dismayed feeling that they were going to start head-buttingeach other. Oh, Lord, if she could onlythinkstraight. She feltso brainless. â€Å"You've got the wrong idea,† James said to Philthrough clenched teeth. â€Å"The wrongidea? Icome in here and find the two of you in bed, with all the curtains drawn, and you're telling me I've got the wrongidea?† â€Å"Onthe bed, Poppy interjected. Phil ignored her. James shook Phil. He did it quite easily and withan economy of movement, but Phil's head snapped back and forth. Poppy realized that James was not athis most rational right now. She remembered the metal chair leg and decided it was time to intervene. Letgo,†she said, reaching in between the two boys to grab for hands. Anybody's hands. â€Å"Come on,you guys!† And then, desperately, â€Å"Phil, I know youdon't understand, but James is trying tohelp me-â€Å" â€Å"Help you? I don't think so.† And then to James:†Look at her. Can't you see that this stupid pretending is making hersicker? Every time I find her with you, she's white as a sheet. You're just making things worse.† â€Å"You don't know anything about it,† Jamessnarled in Phil's face. But Poppy was still processing something several sentences back. â€Å"Stupid? Pretending?† she said. Her voice wasn't very loud but everything stopped. Both boys looked at her. Everyone made mistakes then. Later, Poppy wouldrealize that if any of them had kept their heads, what happened next could have been avoided. But noneof them did. â€Å"I'm sorry,†Philsaid to Poppy. â€Å"I didn't want totell you-â€Å" â€Å"Shut up,†James said savagely. â€Å"But I have to.This-jerk-isjust playing with you.He admitted it to me. He said he felt sorry for you,and he thinks that pretending he likes you makesyou feel better. He's got an ego that would fill Dodger Stadium.† â€Å"Pretending?† Poppy said again, sitting back. Therewas a buzzing in her head and an eruption gathering in her chest. â€Å"Poppy, he's crazy,† James said. â€Å"Listen-â€Å" But Poppy wasn't listening. The problem was thatshe couldfeelhow sorry Phil was. It was much more convincing than anger. And Phillip, honest, straightforward, trustworthy Phillip, almost never lied. He wasn't lying now. Which meant†¦ that James must be. Eruption time. â€Å"You. . .†she whispered to James.,†You . . .†She couldn't think of a swear word bad enough. Some how she felt more hurt, more betrayed than she hadever felt before. She had thought sheknewJames;she had trusted him absolutely. Which made the betrayal all the worse. â€Å"So it was all pretending? Isthat it?† Some inner voice was telling her to hold on andthink. That she was in no state to make crucial decisions. But she was also in no state to listen to innervoices. Her own anger kept her from deciding if shehad any good reason to be angry. â€Å"You just feltsorryfor me?† she whispered, and suddenly all the fury and grief that she'd been suppressing for the last day and a half flooded out. Shewas blind with pain, and nothing mattered exceptmaking James hurt as much as she hurt. Jameswas breathing hard,speaking rapidly.†Poppy-this is why I didn't want Phil to know-â€Å" â€Å"And nowonder,† Poppyraged. â€Å"And no wonderyou wouldn't say you loved me,† she went on, not even caring that Phillip was listening. â€Å"And no wonder you would do all that other stuff, but you never even kissed me. Well, I don't want yourpity-â€Å" â€Å"Whatotherstuff?.Allwhatotherstuff?†Philshouted.†I'mgonna kill you, Rasmussen!† He tore free of James and swung at him. Jamesducked so that the fist just grazed his hair. Philswung again and James twisted sideways andgrabbed him from behind in a headlock. Poppy heard running footsteps in the hall. â€Å"What's happening?† her mother gasped in dismay, regarding the scene in Poppy's bedroom. At almost the same instant Cliff appeared behindPoppy's mother. â€Å"What's all the shouting?† he asked, his jaw particularly square. â€Å"You'rethe one who's putting her in danger,†James was snarling in Phillip's ear. â€Å"Right now.† Helooked feral. Savage. Inhuman. â€Å"Let go of my brother!† Poppyyelled. All at onceher eyes were swimming with tears. â€Å"Oh, my God-darling,† her mother said. In two steps she was beside the bed and holding Poppy.† You boys getoutof here.† The savagery drained out of James's expression,and he loosened his hold on Phillip. â€Å"Look, I'm sorry. I have to stay. Poppy†¦Ã¢â‚¬  Phillip slammed an elbow into his stomach. It might not have hurt James as much as it woulda human, but Poppy saw the fury sweep over his face as he straightened from doubling up. He lifted Phil off his feet and threw him headfirst in the general direction of Poppy's dresser. Poppy's mother let out a cry. Cliff jumped in between Phil and James. â€Å"That's enough!† he roared. Then, to Phil: â€Å"Are you all right?† And to James: â€Å"What's this allabout?† Phil was rubbing his head dazedly. James saidnothing. Poppy couldn't speak. â€Å"All right, it doesn't matter,† Cliff said. â€Å"I guesseverybody's a little jumpy right now. But you'd better go on home, James.† James looked at Poppy. Poppy, throbbing all over like an aching tooth,turned her back on him. She burrowed into her mother's embrace. â€Å"I'll be back,† James said quietly. It might have been meant as a promise, but it sounded like a threat. â€Å"Not for a while, you won't,† Cliff said in a military command voice. Gazing over her mother's arm, Poppy could see that there was blood on Phillip'sblond hair. â€Å"I think everybody needs a cooling-off period. Now, come on, move.† He led James out. Poppy sniffled and shivered, trying to ignore both the waves of giddiness that swept over her and the agitated murmuring of all the voices in her head. The stereo went on blasting out madcorestomping music from England. In the next two days James called eight times. Poppy actually picked up the phone the first time.It was after midnight when her private line rang, and she responded automatically, still half-asleep. â€Å"Poppy, don't hang up,† James said. Poppy hung up. A moment later the phone rangagain. â€Å"Poppy, if you don't want to die, you've got tolisten to me.† â€Å"That's blackmail. You'resick,†Poppy said, clutching the handset. Her tongue felt thick and her head ached. â€Å"It's just the truth. Poppy, listen. You didn't takeany blood today. I weakened you, and you didn't get anything in exchange. And that could kill you.† Poppy heard the words, but they didn't seem real.She found herself ignoring them, retreating into afoggy state where thought was impossible. â€Å"I don'tcare.† â€Å"You do-care, and if you could think, you'd knowthat. It's the change that's doing this. You're completely messed up mentally. You're too paranoid andillogical and crazy toknowyou're paranoid and illogical and crazy.† It was suspiciously like what Poppy hadrea!izedearlier. She was aware, dimly, that she was acting the way Marissa Schaffer had after drinking a sixpack of beer at Jan Nedjar's New Year's party. Making a ranting fool of herself. But she couldn't seemto stop. â€Å"I just want to know one thing,† she said. â€Å"Is ittrue that you said that stuff to Phillip?† She heard James let his breath out. â€Å"It's true thatI said it. But whatI said wasn't true. It was just toget him off my back.† By now Poppy was too upset to even want tocalm down. â€Å"Why should I believe somebody whose whole lifeis a lie?† she said, and hung up again as the first tears spilled. All the next day she stayed in her state of foggy denial. Nothing seemed real, not the fight withJames, not James's warning, and not her illness. Especially not her illness. Her mind found a way toaccept the special treatment she was getting from everyone without dwelling on the reason forthetreatment. She even managed to disregard her mother's whispered comments to Phil about how she was going downhill so fast. How poor Poppy was getting pale, getting weak, getting worse. And only Poppy knew that she could now hear conversations held in the hallway as clearly as if they were in her own room. All her senses were sharpened, even as her mindwas dulled. When she looked at herself in the mirror, she was startled by how white she was, her skintranslucent as candle wax. Her eyesso green and fierce that they burned. The other six times James called, Poppy's mothertold him Poppy was resting. Cliff fixed the broken trim on Poppy's dresser.†Who would have thought the kid was that strong?† he said. James flipped his cellular phone shut and banged a fist on the Integra's dashboard. It was Thursday afternoon. I low you.That's what he should have said toPoppy. And now it was too late-,she wouldn't even talk to him. Whyhadn'the said it? His reasons seemed stupid now. So he hadn't taken advantage of Poppy's innocence and gratitude †¦well, bravo. All he'd donewas tap her veins and break her heart. All he'd done was hasten her death. But there wasn't time to think about it now. Rightnow he had a masquerade to attend. He got out of the car and gave his windbreaker a twitch as he walked toward the sprawling ranch style house. He unlocked and opened the door without callingto announce his presence. He didn't need to announce it; his mother would sense him. Inside, it was all cathedral ceilings and fashionablybare walls. The one oddity was that every one of the many skylights was covered with elegant custom made drapes. This made the interior seem spacious but dim. Almost cavernous. â€Å"James,† his mother said, coming from the back wing. She had jet-black hair with a sheen like lacquerand a perfect figure that was emphasized rather thandisguised by her silver-and-gold embroidered wrap.Her eyes were cool gray and heavily lashed, like James's. She kissed the air beside his cheek. â€Å"I got your message,† James said. â€Å"What do youwant?† â€Å"I'd really rather wait until your father gets home†¦.† â€Å"Mom, I'm sorry, but I'm in a hurry. I've got thingsto do-I haven't even fed today.† â€Å"It shows,† his mother said. She regarded him fora moment without blinking. Then she sighed, turning toward the living room. â€Å"At least, let's sit down†¦.You've been a little agitated, haven't you, these last few days?† James sat on the crimson-dyed suede couch. Nowwas the test of his acting ability. If he could get through the next minute without his mother sensingthe truth, he'd be home free. â€Å"I'm sure Dad told you why,† he said evenly. â€Å"Yes. Little Poppy. It's very sad, isn't it?† The shadeof the single treelike floor lamp was deep red, and ruby light fell across half his mother's face. â€Å"I was upset at first, but I'm pretty much over itnow,† James said. He kept his voice dull and concen trated on sending nothing-nothing-through hisaura. He could feel his mother lightly probing theedges of his mind. Like an insect gently caressing with an antenna, or a snake tasting the air with its black forked tongue. :†I'm surprised† his mother said. â€Å"1 thought youliked her.† â€Å"I did. But, after all, they're not reallypeople,are they?† He considered a moment, then said, â€Å"It's sort of like losing a pet. I guess I'll just have to find another one.† It was a bold move, quoting the party line. Jameswilled every muscle to stay relaxed as he felt the thought-tendrils tighten suddenly, coiling aroundhim, looking for a chink in his armor. He thought very hard-about Michaela Vasquez. Trying to project just the right amount of negligent fondness. It worked. The probing tendrils slipped away fromhis mind, and his mother settled back gracefully and smiled. â€Å"I'm glad you're taking it so well. But if you everfeel that you'd like to talk to someone †¦ your father knows some very good therapists.† Vampire therapists, she meant. To screw his headon straight about how humans were just for feeding on. â€Å"I know you want to avoid trouble as much as Ido,† she added. â€Å"It reflects on the family, you see.† â€Å"Sure,† James said, and shrugged. â€Å"I've got to gonow. Tell Dad I said hi, okay?† He kissed the air beside her cheek. â€Å"Oh, by the way,† she said as he turned towardthe door. â€Å"Your cousin Ashwillbe coming next week. I think he'd like to stay with you at the apartment-and I'm sure you'd like some companythere.† Over my unbreathing body, James thought. He'dforgotten all about Ash's threat to visit. But now wasn't the time to argue. He walked out feeling likea juggler with too many balls in the air. Back in his car he picked up the cellular phone,hesitated, then snapped it shut without turning it on. Calling wasn't any good. It was time to change hisstrategy. All right, then. No more half measures. A seriousoffensive-aimed where it would do the most good. He thought for a few minutes, then drove toMcDonnell Drive, parking just a few houses awayfrom where Poppy lived. And then he waited. He was prepared to sit there all night if necessary,but he didn't have to. Just around sunset the garage door opened and a white Volkswagen Jetta backedout. James saw a blond head in the driver's seat Hi, Phil. Nice to see you.When the Jetta pulled away, he followed it.

Acquisition in Multinational Coperation Essay

Purpose – This conceptual paper aims to draw upon recent complexity and organizational psychology literature to examine conï ¬â€šict episodes, exploring the limitations of the predominant research paradigm that treats conï ¬â€šict episodes as occurring in sequence, as discrete isolated incidents. Design/methodology/approach – The paper addresses a long-standing issue in conï ¬â€šict management research, which is that the predominant typology of conï ¬â€šict is confusing. The complexity perspective challenges the fundamental paradigm, which has dominated research in the conï ¬â€šict ï ¬ eld, in which conï ¬â€šict episodes occur in sequence and in isolation, with managers using one predominant form of conï ¬â€šict resolution behavior. Findings – The ï ¬ ndings are two-fold: ï ¬ rst, the behavioral strategies adopted in the management of these conï ¬â€šicts will be highly complex and will be determined by a number of inï ¬â€šuencing factors; and second, this moves theory beyond the two dimensional duel concern perspective, in that the adaptable manager dealing with these multiple, simultaneous conï ¬â€šicts will also need to consider the possible implications of their chosen strategy along with the changing micro environment in which they operate. Originality/value – This paper adds value to the ï ¬ eld of conï ¬â€šict theory by moving beyond two dimensions and exploring a sequential contingency perspective for conï ¬â€šict management within the organization. It argues that multiple conï ¬â€šict episodes can occur simultaneously, requiring managers to use differing behaviors for successful conï ¬â€šict management. Keywords Conï ¬â€šict management, Conï ¬â€šict resolution, Organizational conï ¬â€šict, Individual behaviour, Interpersonal relations Paper type Conceptual paper International Journal of Conï ¬â€šict Management Vol. 21 No. 2, 2010 pp. 186-201 q Emerald Group Publishing Limited 1044-4068 DOI 10.1108/10444061011037404 Introduction It is now over 40 years since Louis Pondy (1967) wrote his seminal article on conï ¬â€šict within the organization and its management and almost 20 years since his reï ¬â€šections on his earlier work were published (Pondy, 1989)[1]. In 1967 Pondy established what was for two decades the generally accepted paradigm of conï ¬â€šict: that conï ¬â€šict episodes occur as temporary disruptions to the otherwise cooperative relationships which make up the organization (Pondy, 1967). In his subsequent reï ¬â€šections on his earlier work and that of others, Pondy proposed that conï ¬â€šict is an inherent feature of organizational life, rather than an occasional breakdown of cooperation (Pondy, 1989). This radically challenged the previous paradigm. Indeed, Pondy (1989) even suggested that research into the phenomenon of cooperation within the organization could be beneï ¬ cial in providing further insight into conï ¬â€šict within the organization, implying that it was cooperation, not conï ¬â€šict, which was the anomalous state requiring investigation. Yet, for almost two decades, Pondy’s conceptualization of conï ¬â€šict as a natural state for the organization has remained largely unexplored despite the emergence of a complexity perspective which explores multiple elements of the conï ¬â€šict situation or cooperative state. One possible reason why Pondy’s challenge has not been answered is that some confusion has arisen over the terms and typologies used for the classiï ¬ cation of conï ¬â€šict episodes. Consequently, debates about conï ¬â€šict structure or composition have tended to dominate the research agenda. The potential for confusion arising from these various conï ¬â€šict classiï ¬ cations will be discussed in this paper. Where conï ¬â€šict management behaviors have been studied, researchers have tended to focus on a two-dimensional approach or â€Å"dual concern theory† model (Thomas, 1976) which suggests that individuals adopt conï ¬â€šict management behaviors based on their perceived self interests and those of others; i.e. concern for self (competitive behaviors) versus concern for other (accommodating behaviors). Although this approach to the research of conï ¬â€šict and its management ï ¬ ts well with Pondy’s (1967) original paradigm, it is challenged by the complexity perspective that has emerged in psychology research. The complexity perspective of intraorganizational conï ¬â€šict maintains that interpersonal relationships are more complex than hitherto thought, and that the unfolding conï ¬â€šict is inï ¬â€šuenced by a wide variety of conditions. Moreover the complexity perspective encourages the consideration of simultaneous complexity (more than one event occurring simultaneously) and of how the mode of conï ¬â€šict management affects the outcomes (Munduate et al., 1999). This fresh perspective has enabled researchers to examine the point at which behavioral style is changed and the effect on the conï ¬â€šict episode (Olekalns et al., 1996) and to look at how different behaviors are combined (Janssen et al., 1999). With the recent developments in the complexity perspective of conï ¬â€šict management research (Van de Vliert et al., 1997; Munduate et al., 1999), the time has come to further explore the possible consequences of the complexity perspective: whether it is in fact the case that conï ¬â€šict is an inherent condition within the organization (Pondy, 1989); whether conï ¬â€šict episodes do not occur in isolation but occur frequently and simultaneously (Euwema et al., 2003); and whether complex sequences of adaptive behaviors are required to continually manage the constantly changing intraorganizational, conï ¬â€šict environment. Before we can do this, and to provide a common ground for discourse, we ï ¬ rst need to examine some of the theories around conï ¬â€šict typology that have arisen in the psychology and management literature and which may be the cause of some confusion. Conï ¬â€šict terms and typologies â€Å"Conï ¬â€šict† is a broad construct that has been studied extensively across several disciplines covering a wide range of social interactions. Previous conï ¬â€šict research has identiï ¬ ed four main levels of conï ¬â€šict in the context of human behavior and relationships as summarized by Lewecki et al. (2003): (1) Intergroup conï ¬â€šicts between groups of individuals which can range in size and complexity due to the many relationships involved, including international conï ¬â€šict between nations. (2) Intragroup or intraorganizational conï ¬â€šicts arising within smaller groups which comprise the organization. A re-evaluation of conï ¬â€šict theory 187 IJCMA 21,2 188 (3) Interpersonal conï ¬â€šict; that is, conï ¬â€šict at an individual level, conï ¬â€šict between individuals, or conï ¬â€šict between an individual and a group. (4) Intrapersonal conï ¬â€šict on a personal level, where the conï ¬â€šict occurs in one’s own mind. Although these four levels of conï ¬â€šict all appear across both the psychology and management literature, it is the third level (interpersonal conï ¬â€šicts within the organization or the reactions an individual or group has to the perception that two parties have aspirations that cannot be achieved simultaneously) that has become the central ï ¬ eld of research within the organization (Putnem and Poole, 1987). In 1992, Thomas proposed a simpliï ¬ ed deï ¬ nition of interpersonal conï ¬â€šict as the process which begins when an individual or group feels negatively affected by another individual or group. The conï ¬â€šict consists of a perception of barriers to achieving one’s goals (Thomas, 1992). More recently, interpersonal conï ¬â€šict has been deï ¬ ned as an individual’s perceptions of incompatibilities, differences in views or interpersonal incompatibility (Jehn, 1997). Conï ¬â€šict at this level has mostly been seen as adversarial and as having a negative effect upon relationships (Ford et al., 1975). These deï ¬ nitions presuppose that an opposition or incompatibility is perceived by both parties, that some interaction is taking place, and that both parties are able to inï ¬â€šuence or get involved – that is. that there is some degree of interdependence (Medina et al., 2004). Interpersonal conï ¬â€šict could arise within organizations where, for example, customer-facing departments such as Sales make promises to customers that other departments then have to deliver. In this domain of intraorganizational, interpersonal conï ¬â€šict, both Pondy’s (1966, 1967) work and recent developments adopting the complexity perspective are of particular interest This broad area of intraorganizational, interpersonal conï ¬â€šict has been further subdivided into two types: relationship conï ¬â€šict and task conï ¬â€šict. Relationship conï ¬â€šict arises between the actors through their subjective emotional positions, whereas task conï ¬â€šict relates primarily to the more objective tasks or issues involved (Reid et al., 2004). A series of studies conï ¬ rmed this duality between relationship and task. Wall and Nolan (1986) identiï ¬ ed â€Å"people oriented† versus â€Å"task oriented† conï ¬â€šict. In the early to mid-1990s Priem and Price (1991), Pinkley and Northcraft (1994), Jehn (1995) and Sessa (1996) all identiï ¬ ed â€Å"relationship† and â€Å"task† as discrete aspects of conï ¬â€šict. The picture became rather more complicated in the late 1990s. In 1995 Amason et al. redeï ¬ ned conï ¬â€šict types as â€Å"affective† and â€Å"cognitive† and in 1999 Van de Vliert further redeï ¬ ned these types as â€Å"task† and â€Å"person† conï ¬â€šict. In working toward a more comprehensive model of intraorganizational, interpersonal conï ¬â€šict, Jameson (1999) suggested three dimensions for conï ¬â€šict: (1) content; (2) relational; and (3) situational. The content dimension encompasses the previously discussed conï ¬â€šict types (affective, cognitive, relationship etc) while the relational dimension considers the subjective, perceived variables within the relationships of the actors involved: . trust; . status; . . . . A re-evaluation of conï ¬â€šict theory seriousness; degree of interdependence; record of success; and the number of actors involved. The situational dimension examines the variables which may be most relevant in selecting an appropriate conï ¬â€šict management strategy. These include time pressure, the potential impact of the conï ¬â€šict episode, the degree of escalation and the range of options available in the management of the conï ¬â€šict episode (Jameson, 1999). Meanwhile, Sheppard (1992) criticized the multiplicity of terms that were being used to describe types of interpersonal conï ¬â€šict, and the needless confusion that this caused. The result of the many approaches described above is that there is no general model for the typology of interpersonal conï ¬â€šict within the organization. In the absence of such a model, other researchers have taken different approaches, using the antecedents of the conï ¬â€šict episode to describe conï ¬â€šict types. Examples of this proliferation include role conï ¬â€šict (Walker et al., 1975), gender conï ¬â€šict (Cheng, 1995) and goal conï ¬â€šict (Tellefsen and Eyuboglu, 2002). This proliferation of terms or typologies has unsurprisingly led to confusion, most noticeably with the term â€Å"interpersonal conï ¬â€šict† being used to describe purely relationship or emotional conï ¬â€šict (Bradford et al., 2004) or conï ¬â€šict being deï ¬ ned in terms of emotion only, adding to the wide range of terms already used (Bodtker and Jameson, 2001). Thus, at a time when international, interorganizational, intraorganizational, interpersonal and intrapersonal conï ¬â€šicts are being extensively studied with conï ¬â€šict deï ¬ ned and operationalized in a variety of ways, no widely accepted and consistent model has emerged to shape conï ¬â€šict research (Reid et al., 2004). Table I summarizes the many different conï ¬â€šict typologies that have been proposed. Table I illustrates that relationship and task conï ¬â€šict are almost universally accepted as distinct types of interpersonal conï ¬â€šict by psychology and management researchers. Date Author(s) Conï ¬â€šict typology 1986 1991 1994 1995 1995 1996 1996 1997 1999 1999 2000 2000 2002 2003 2003 2004 2004 2005 Wall and Nolan Priem and Price Pinkley and Northcraft Jehn Amason et al. Sessa Amason Amason and Sapienza Jameson Janssen et al. Friedman et al. Jehn and Chatman Tellefsen and Eyuboglu Bradford et al. De Dreu and Weingart Reid et al. Tidd et al. Guerra et al. People oriented, task oriented Relationship, task Relationship, task Relationship, task Cognitive, affective Task, person oriented Affective, cognitive Affective, cognitive Content, relational, situational Task, person oriented Relationship, task Task, relationship, process Goal conï ¬â€šicts Interpersonal, task Relationship, task Relationship, task Relationship, task Relationship, task 189 Table I. A summary of the typologies of conï ¬â€šict IJCMA 21,2 190 In addition, many researchers have identiï ¬ ed a third type of conï ¬â€šict which relates to the environment in which managers operate, described as situational conï ¬â€šict ( Jameson, 1999) or process conï ¬â€šict ( Jehn and Chatman, 2000). We believe that a consistent conï ¬â€šict typology is called for, to aid future research into the complex nature of intraorganizational conï ¬â€šict. In this paper, we propose that future researchers should recognize three types of interpersonal conï ¬â€šict. However, since the terms â€Å"relationship† and â€Å"task† are vulnerable to misinterpretation we advocate using the terms affective and cognitive (following Amason, 1996 and Amason and Sapienza, 1997), in conjunction with process (Jehn and Chatman, 2000), to describe the three types of interpersonal conï ¬â€šict. These terms, which reï ¬â€šect the more speciï ¬ c terminology used in the psychology literature, are deï ¬ ned in Table II. As Table II shows, the t ypology we propose is as follows. Affective Conï ¬â€šict is a term describing conï ¬â€šicts concerned with what people think and feel about their relationships including such dimensions as trust, status and degree of interdependence (Amason and Sapienza, 1997). Cognitive Conï ¬â€šict describes conï ¬â€šicts concerned with what people know and understand about their task, roles and functions. Process Conï ¬â€šict relates to conï ¬â€šicts arising from the situational context, the organization structure, strategy or culture (Amason and Sapienza, 1997; Jehn and Chatman, 2000). Using this typology for conï ¬â€šict between individuals or groups of individuals within the organization avoids confusion over the use of the terms â€Å"interpersonal†, â€Å"person† or â€Å"relationship† often used when referring to affective conï ¬â€šict, while task conï ¬â€šict is clearly distinguished from process conï ¬â€šict, addressing all the issues previously outlined. These terms will therefore be used throughout the remainder of t his paper. Having argued that taxonomic confusion has hindered conï ¬â€šict research through the misuse of existing taxonomies (Bradford et al., 2004) or where language has resulted in the use of different terms to describe the same conï ¬â€šict type (see Table I), we now move on to consider the implications or consequences of intraorganizational conï ¬â€šict and whether it is always negative or can have positive consequences (De Dreu, 1997). Consequences of conï ¬â€šict: functional or dysfunctional? Some researchers exploring attitudes towards conï ¬â€šict have considered the consequences of conï ¬â€šict for individual and team performance (Jehn, 1995) and have found that interpersonal conï ¬â€šict can have either functional (positive) or dysfunctional (negative) outcomes for team and individual performance (e.g. Amason, 1996). Moreover, the consequences of conï ¬â€šict can be perceived and felt in different ways by different actors experiencing the conï ¬â€šict episode (Jehn and Chatman, 2000). Thus, conï ¬â€šict is situationally and perceptually relative. Conï ¬â€šict type Affective Table II. A proposed taxonomy of conï ¬â€šict Deï ¬ nition Conï ¬â€šicts concerned with what people think and feel about their relationships with other individuals or groups Cognitive Conï ¬â€šicts concerned with what people know and understand about their task Process Conï ¬â€šicts arising from the situational context, the organization structure, strategy or culture The traditional view of conï ¬â€šict takes the view that conï ¬â€šict exists in opposition to co-operation and that conï ¬â€šict is wholly dysfunctional, putting the focus on resolution rather than management (e.g. Pondy, 1966). This perspective can be traced forward to more recent work. Where conï ¬â€šict is deï ¬ ned as the process which begins when one person or group feels negatively affected by another (Thomas, 1992), there is an implication of obstruction to either party achieving their goals, which is readily interpreted negatively. This can result in conï ¬â€šict avoidance or suppression of conï ¬â€šict management behavior, leading to perceived negative consequences on team or individual performance (De Dreu, 1997). Negatively-perceived conï ¬â€šict episodes can increase tension and antagonism between individuals and lead to a lack of focus on the required task (Saavedra et al., 1993; Wall and Nolan, 1986) while avoidance and suppression can also have long term nega tive consequences such as stiï ¬â€šing creativity, promoting groupthink and causing an escalation in any existing conï ¬â€šict (De Dreu, 1997). Not surprisingly, where interdependence is negative (where one party wins at the expense of the other although they have some dependency in their relationship) any conï ¬â€šict will be viewed negatively (Janssen et al., 1999). The perception of conï ¬â€šict will also be negative where the conï ¬â€šict is personal, resulting in personality clashes, increased stress and frustration. This type of relationship conï ¬â€šict can impede the decision-making process as individuals focus on the personal aspects rather than the task related issues (Jehn, 1995). In contrast to the somewhat negative perception of intraorganizational conï ¬â€šict outlined above, more recent conï ¬â€šict management theory has begun to suggest that certain types of conï ¬â€šict can have a positive effect upon relationships and that the best route to this outcome is through acceptance of, and effective management of, inevitable conï ¬â€šict, rather than through conï ¬â€šict avoidance or suppression (De Dreu, 1997). When individuals are in conï ¬â€šict they have to address major issues, be more creative, and see different aspects of a problem. These challenges can mitigate groupthink and stimulate creativity (De Dreu, 1997). Naturally, where there is high positive interdependence (an agreeable outcome for both parties), the conï ¬â€šict episode will be viewed much more positively (Janssen et al., 1999). Moreover, Jehn (1995) has suggested that task- and issue-based cognitive con ï ¬â€šict can have a positive effect on team performance. Groups who experience cognitive conï ¬â€šict have a greater understanding of the assignments at hand and are able to make better decisions in dealing with issues as they arise (Simons and Peterson, 2000). For example, research has shown that, when individuals are exposed to a â€Å"devil’s advocate†, they are able to make better judgments than those not so exposed (Schwenk, 1990). Schulz-Hardt et al. (2002) suggested that groups make better decisions where they started in disagreement rather than agreement. In these examples, conï ¬â€šict has a functional (useful and positive) outcome. We have argued that the notion of functional conï ¬â€šict has shifted the ï ¬ eld of conï ¬â€šict research away from conï ¬â€šict resolution and towards consideration of the management behaviors which can be adopted in dealing with conï ¬â€šict in order to gain the best possible outcome (De Dreu, 1997; Euwema et al., 2003 ). Next, we examine research into conï ¬â€šict management behaviors and explore some of the managerial tools that have been developed to help managers to deal with intraorganizational, interpersonal conï ¬â€šict. Conï ¬â€šict management behaviors Conï ¬â€šict management can be deï ¬ ned as the actions in which a person typically engages, in response to perceived interpersonal conï ¬â€šict, in order to achieve a desired goal A re-evaluation of conï ¬â€šict theory 191 IJCMA 21,2 192 (Thomas, 1976). Demonstrably, conï ¬â€šict management pays off: previous research has indicated that it is the way in which conï ¬â€šict episodes are addressed which determines the outcome (Amason, 1996). However, there is disagreement between researchers as to the degree to which managers can and do adopt different conï ¬â€šict management behaviors. Previous research has considered three different approaches: the â€Å"one best way† perspective (Sternberg and Soriano, 1984); the contingency or situational perspective (Thomas, 1992; Munduate et al., 1999; Nicotera, 1993); and the complexity or conglomerated perspective (Van de Vliert et al., 1999; Euwema et al., 2003). Arguably the simplest perspective on conï ¬â€šict management behavior is the â€Å"one best way† perspective (Sternberg and Soriano, 1984), which agues that one conï ¬â€šict management style or behavior (collaboration) is more effective than any other. However, it argues that individuals have a parti cular preferred behavioral predisposition to the way in which they handle conï ¬â€šict. Thus, from the â€Å"one best way† perspective, the conï ¬â€šict-avoiding manager may have a behavioral predisposition to avoidance strategies, whereas the accommodating manager may prefer accommodating solutions. In this paradigm, the most constructive solution is considered to be collaboration, since collaboration is always positively interdependent – it has a joint best outcome, generally described as â€Å"win/win† (Van de Vliert et al., 1997). The â€Å"one best way† approach suggests that a more aggressive, competitive, negatively interdependent approach (in fact, any conï ¬â€šict management approach other than collaborative) can result in suboptimal outcomes (Janssen et al., 1999). However, the â€Å"one best way† perspective raises more questions than it answers. It does not explain how managers are able to collaborate if they have a different behavioral predisposition, nor does it provide evidence that collaboration always produces the best outcome (Thomas, 1992). A more general problem with the â€Å"one best way† approach is that it may not be very useful: if managers truly have little or no control over their approach to conï ¬â€šict management, the practical applications are limited. The â€Å"one best way† perspective does not consider the passage of time, that behaviors could be changed or modiï ¬ ed during any interaction, nor the effect any previous encounters may have on the current experience (Van de Vliert et al., 1997). Moving beyond the â€Å"one best way† perspective, in which only collaborative behaviors are considered to provide the most desirable outcome, the contingency perspective maintains that the optimal conï ¬â€šict management behavior depends on the speciï ¬ c conï ¬â€šict situation, and that what is appropriate in one situation may not be appropriate in another (Thomas, 1992). In this paradigm, the best approach is dependent upon the particular set of circumstances. The implications, which are very different to the â€Å"one best way† perspective, are that individuals can and should select the conï ¬â€šict management behavior that is most likely to produce the desired outcome. Thus, conï ¬â€šict management behaviors are regarded as a matter of preference (rather than innate, as in the â€Å"one best way† view), and the outcome is dependent on the selection of the most appropriate mode of conï ¬â€šict management behavior. Until recently, conï ¬â€šict research has been heavily inï ¬â€šuenced by the â€Å"one best way† and contingency perspectives, focusing on the effectiveness of a single mode of conï ¬â€šict management behavior (primarily collaboration) during a single conï ¬â€šict episode (Sternberg and Soriano, 1984). Thus the â€Å"one best way† and contingency perspectives do not necessarily o ffer a real-world view in which managers both can and do change their behaviors: adapting to the situation; perhaps trying different approaches to break a deadlock or to improve their bargaining position; taking into account changing circumstances in the microenvironment; and the subsequent inï ¬â€šuence upon the actions of individuals involved in any conï ¬â€šict episode (Olekalns et al., 1996). A fresh approach is provided by the complexity perspective, which characterizes conï ¬â€šicts as being dynamic and multi-dimensional. In such circumstances, the best behavioral style in dealing with any one conï ¬â€šict episode may vary during, or between, conï ¬â€šict episodes (Medina et al., 2004; Nicotera, 1993). For conï ¬â€šict in a complex world, neither the â€Å"one best way† nor the contingency perspective would necessarily produce optimal results. If conï ¬â€šict does not occur discretely and individually (Pondy, 1992a), existing approaches may not describe the world as managers actually experience it. Arguably, these approaches have artiï ¬ cially limited conï ¬â€šict research to a ï ¬â€šat, two-dimensional model. To address the shortcomings of traditional research and to incorporate the complexity perspective into conï ¬â€šict management theory, we need to move beyond two dimensions (Van de Vliert et al., 1997). Beyond two dimensions of conï ¬â€šict management theory Recent work by Van de Vliert et al. (1997) and Medina et al. (2004) has expanded current theory through consideration of the complexity perspective. The complexity perspective argues that any reaction to a conï ¬â€šict episode consists of multiple behavioral components rather than one single conï ¬â€šict management behavior. In the complexity perspective, using a mixture of accommodating, avoiding, competing, compromising and collaborating behaviors throughout the conï ¬â€šict episode is considered to be the rule rather than the exception (Van de Vliert et al., 1997). To date, studies taking a complexity approach to conï ¬â€šict management have adopted one of three different complexity perspectives. The ï ¬ rst examines simultaneous complexity and how different combinations of behaviors affect the outcome of the conï ¬â€šict (Munduate et al., 1999). The second complexity approach focuses on the point of behavioral change and the outcome, examining either the behavioral phases through which the participants of a conï ¬â€šict episode pass, or apply temporal complexity to look at the point at which behavioral style changes and the effect on the conï ¬â€šict episode (Olekalns et al., 1996). The third approach is the sequential complexity or conglomerated perspective, which is concerned with the different modes of conï ¬â€šict management behavior, how they are combined, and at what point they change during the interaction. The application of the complexity perspective to conï ¬â€šict management research has revealed that managers use more than the ï ¬ ve behaviors suggested by the â€Å"one best way† perspective to manage conï ¬â€šict. In their study of conglomerated conï ¬â€šict management behavior, Euwema et al. (2003) argued that the traditional approach under-represents the individual’s assertive modes of behavior and have as a result added â€Å"confronting† and â€Å"process controlling†, making seven possible behaviors: (1) competing; (2) collaborating; (3) avoiding; (4) compromising; (5) accommodating; A re-evaluation of conï ¬â€šict theory 193 IJCMA 21,2 194 (6) confronting; and (7) process controlling. Weingart et al. (1990) identiï ¬ ed two types of sequential pattern: Reciprocity, responding to the other party with the same behavior; and Complementarity, responding with an opposing behavior. Applying a complexity perspective, the effectiveness of complementarity or reciprocity behaviors will be contingent upon the situation, the micro-environment, the number of conï ¬â€šict episodes, and the types of conï ¬â€šict present. The sequential pattern may in itself be complex, being dependent both upon the current situation and on varying behaviors throughout the interaction. A further, often unrecognized implication of complexity in conï ¬â€šict is that each conï ¬â€šict episode could be unique, being composed of different proportions of each of the affective, cognitive and process conï ¬â€šict types (Jehn and Chatman, 2000). The implication for conï ¬â€šict management strategy and the choice of the most appropriate behavior is immense. Therefore, a new perspective is needed, in which conï ¬â€šict and the response to conï ¬â€šict is viewed as dynamic and changing over time, with each conï ¬â€šict episode having a unique composition requiring a speciï ¬ c but ï ¬â€šexible approach in order to obtain the best possible outcome. We propose that this might result in a manager changing behavior during a conï ¬â€šict episode, or indeed a manager adopting different behaviors for a number of conï ¬â€šict episodes occurring simultaneously. In the next section, we take all these complex factors into account and propose a single, dynamic and comprehensive model of conï ¬â€šict management behavior. Multiple, simultaneous conï ¬â€šict episodes We have shown that the ï ¬ eld of conï ¬â€šict has become entangled in multiple terms and that research into conï ¬â€šict management is struggling to reconcile two-dimensional models with the more complex situation encountered in the real world. A model is needed which considers the complexity of conï ¬â€šict episodes and separates conï ¬â€šict antecedents from conï ¬â€šict types, recognizing that conï ¬â€šict can relate to emotions and situations which have common antecedents. We propose that the way forward is to expand the conglomerated perspective into a sequential contingency perspective, in which the sequence of conï ¬â€šict management behaviors adopted is dependent upon a number of inï ¬â€šuencing factors in the micro-environment, the number of conï ¬â€šict episodes being dealt with, their composition, and changes in the behaviors of the actors involved. A sequential contingency perspective The sequential contingency perspective for intraorganizational, interpersonal conï ¬â€šict proposes the adoption of an alternative paradigm which is that conï ¬â€šict is ever-present and ever-changing in terms of its nature or composition; and that it is the way in which these continuous conï ¬â€šicts is managed which determines the outcome of any conï ¬â€šict episode and the nature of any subsequent conï ¬â€šicts. Figure 1 provides a visualization of Pondy’s (1992b) postmodern paradigm of conï ¬â€šict and provides a foundation for the investigation of complex, multiple, simultaneous, intraorganizational conï ¬â€šicts. This conceptual visualization of conï ¬â€šict within the organization provides a three-dimensional representation of conï ¬â€šict from the paradigm that conï ¬â€šict is an inherent feature of organizational life. It shows how, at any one given point in time, A re-evaluation of conï ¬â€šict theory 195 Figure 1. A conceptual visualization of multiple, simultaneous conï ¬â€šict there can be a number of conï ¬â€šict episodes experienced (y axis), each with different intensities (z axis) and duration (x axis). In addition, we have argued that each conï ¬â€šict episode will have a unique composition, being made up of different proportions of cognitive, affective and process elements. The implications for conï ¬â€šict management theory are twofold: ï ¬ rst, the behavioral strategies adopted in the management of these conï ¬â€šicts will be highly complex and will be determined by a number of inï ¬â€šuencing factors; and second, this moves theory beyond the two dimensional duel concern perspective, in that the adaptable manager dealing with these multiple, simultaneous conï ¬â€šicts will also need to consider the possible implications of their chosen strategy along with the changing micro environment in which they operate. Using this three-dimensional conceptual visualization of conï ¬â€šict within the organization we propose a sequential contingency model for managing interpersonal conï ¬â€šict within the organization (Figure 2). The basic elements of the framework in Figure 2 consider all the dimensions of conï ¬â€šict and its management as previously discussed: . the conï ¬â€šict episode characteristics, the type and composition of any conï ¬â€šict episode encountered (Amason, 1996; Jehn, 1995; Jehn, 1997; Pinkley and Northcraft, 1994); . the characteristics of the relationship(s) (Jehn, 1995); . the characteristics of the individuals involved; . the conï ¬â€šict management behaviors; and . the outcome of previous conï ¬â€šict episodes (Van de Vliert et al., 1997). IJCMA 21,2 196 Figure 2. A sequential contingency model for managing intra-organizational, interpersonal conï ¬â€šict The basic postulate of the model is that conï ¬â€šict is a constant and inherent condition of the organization (that is, that conï ¬â€šict episodes do not occur as isolated, anomalous incidents). Additionally, the effectiveness of the conï ¬â€šict management behaviors in terms of its functionality or dysfunctionality is contingent upon, and moderated by, the nature of the conï ¬â€šict, the characteristics of the individuals and relationships involved, and experience of previous conï ¬â€šict. Thus, this model provides a framework for dealing with multiple, simultaneous conï ¬â€šict episodes moving beyond the tradition two-dimensional approach. Future research To date there has been little empirical research into the degree to which individuals are able to adapt their behavior during an interaction, or on the value of the complexity perspective in dealing with complex intraorganizational conï ¬â€šict. The future research agenda needs to explore conï ¬â€šict through Pondy’s (1992b) alternative paradigm and expand on these theoretical ï ¬ ndings by investigating intraorganizational, interpersonal conï ¬â€šict in a number of ways. We therefore set out a research agenda framed in terms of four research propositions. First, taking the sequential contingency perspective and adopting Pondy’s (1989) alternative paradigm for conï ¬â€šict within the organization, research is needed to establish the occurrence of conï ¬â€šict. Pondy (1992b) argues that, rather than a sequence of discrete isolated incidents, conï ¬â€šict is an inherent condition of social interaction within the organization and that conï ¬â€šict episodes occur simultaneously not sequentially. This would imply that: P1a. Conï ¬â€šict is a constant condition of interorganizational, interpersonal relationships. A re-evaluation of conï ¬â€šict theory P1b. Multiple conï ¬â€šict episodes occur simultaneously. P1c. Conï ¬â€šict episodes are complex, having differing compositions of affective, cognitive and process elements which change over time. The complexity perspective recognizes that different conï ¬â€šict situations call for different management behaviors (Van de Vliert et al., 1997). This implies that managers can call upon a much wider range of approaches to conï ¬â€šict management than previously thought. Moreover there is a further implication, which is that managers are able to adapt their behavior during conï ¬â€šict episodes. Thus: P2a. Managers use different behaviors to manage multiple conï ¬â€šicts at any one time. P2b. Managers change their behavior over time during the same conï ¬â€šict episode. A substantial branch of recent conï ¬â€šict management research has focused on the outcomes of conï ¬â€šict and has suggested that not all conï ¬â€šict is negative (De Dreu, 1997; Simons and Peterson, 2000; Schultz-Hardt et al., 2002; Schwenk, 1990). Given this, we need a greater understanding of the effect that the behavior adopted has on the conï ¬â€šict experienced, whether it mitigated or agitated the situation, and the consequences for any subsequent conï ¬â€šict (Amason, 1996). Thus: P3a. The behaviors that managers use affect the outcome of the conï ¬â€šict. P3b. The behaviors that managers use affect subsequent conï ¬â€šicts. Finally, re-visiting Pondy’s (1989) alternative paradigm and incorporating the additional perspectives that come from consideration of conï ¬â€šict outcomes and the application of the complexity perspective, we argue that more research is needed into the relationship between the behaviors that managers adopt and whether these behaviors represent the conscious adaptation of an optimal approach to conï ¬â€šict management. Thus: P4. Conï ¬â€šict management involves adapting a set of behaviors through which a degree of co-operation is maintained, as opposed to the use of behavior(s) which resolve(s) discrete isolated incidents of conï ¬â€šict. Our purpose in setting out a new model and research agenda for conï ¬â€šict management research, together with a set of detailed research propositions, is to move the ï ¬ eld beyond the consideration of conï ¬â€šict episodes as discrete, isolated incidents and to encourage the investigation of different behaviors in different circumstances and their effectiveness. Future research needs to consider the complexity of conï ¬â€šict and adopt a research paradigm which considers the behavioral strategies within long term complex interpersonal relationships. Conclusion This paper has offered four contributions to the ï ¬ eld of conï ¬â€šict and conï ¬â€šict management. The ï ¬ rst is the clariï ¬ cation of conï ¬â€šict typologies set out in Table II. The 197 IJCMA 21,2 198 second contribution is the notion that business managers handle multiple and simultaneous conï ¬â€šict episodes that require different approaches to resolving them, so that the existing models proposed for conï ¬â€šict management are unlikely to chime with their actual experience. The third contribution is to map this in the form of a new theoretical model for conï ¬â€šict management (Figure 2). The fourth contribution is to use this theoretical model to set out a set of research propositions to shape research that will shed light on the real conï ¬â€šicts that managers have to face. Just 40 years on, and intraorganizational conï ¬â€šict theory itself appears to be in conï ¬â€šict. 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(1990), â€Å"Tactical behavior and negotiation outcomes†, International Journal of Conï ¬â€šict Management, Vol. 1 No. 1, pp. 7-31. Further reading Amason, A.C., Hochwarter, W.A., Thompson, K.R. and Harrison, A.W. (1995), â€Å"Conï ¬â€šict: an important dimension in successful management teams†, Organizational Dynamics, Vol. 24 No. 2, pp. 20-35. Blake, R.R. and Mouton, J.S. (1964), The Managerial Grid, Gulf Publishing Co., Houston, TX. De Dreu, C. and Weingart, L.R. (2003), â€Å"Task versus relationship conï ¬â€šict, team performance, and team member satisfaction: a meta-analysis†, Journal of Applied Psychology, Vol. 88 No. 4, pp. 741-9. Deutsch, M. (1973), The Resolution of Conï ¬â€šict, Yale University Press, New Haven, CT. Friedman, R., Tidd, S., Currall, S. and Tsai, J. (2000), â€Å"What goes around comes around: the impact of personal conï ¬â€šict style on work conï ¬â€šict and stress†, International Journal of Conï ¬â€šict Management, Vol. 11 No. 1, pp. 32-55. Guerra, M.J., Martinez, I., Munduate, L. and Medina, F.J. (2005), â€Å"A contingency perspective on the study of the consequences of conï ¬â€šict types: the role of organizational culture†, European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, Vol. 14 No. 2, pp. 157-76. Lewicki, R.J. and Sheppard, B.H. (1985), â€Å"Choosing how to intervene: factors affecting the use of process and outcome control in third party dispute resolution†, Journal of Occupational Behavior, Vol. 6 No. 1, pp. 49-64. Tidd, S.T., McIntyre, H. and Friedman, R.A. (2004), â€Å"The importance of role ambiguity and trust in conï ¬â€šict perception: unpacking the task conï ¬â€šict to relationship conï ¬â€šict linkage†, International Journal of Conï ¬â€šict Management, Vol. 15 No. 4, pp. 364-84. About the authors  ´ James Speakman is Assistant Professor of International Negotiation at IESEG Business School, a member of Catholic University of Lille, where his attentions are focused on sales and negotiation. After working for 16 years in key account management sales he completed his PhD research at Cranï ¬ eld School of Management, where, using the Critical Incident Technique with an Interpretive Framework for coding to investigate intraorganizational, interpersonal conï ¬â€šict and the behavioral sequences adopted in the management of these complex interpersonal, intraorganizational conï ¬â€šict episodes. Other research interests include personal selling, past, present and future, where he conducted the US research for a multinational study on the future of personal selling and negotiation in context where his research interests include multi-cultural negotiation. James Speakman is the corresponding author and can be contacted at: I.Speakman@IESEG.FR Lynette Ryals specializes in key account management and marketing portfolio management, particularly in the area of customer proï ¬ tability. She is a Registered Representative of the London Stock Exchange and a Fellow of the Society of Investment Professionals. She is the Director of Cranï ¬ eld’s Key Account Management Best Practice Research Club, Director of the Demand Chain Management community and a member of Cranï ¬ eld School of Management’s Governing Executive. To purchase reprints of this article please e-mail: reprints@emeraldinsight.com Or visit our web site for further details: www.emeraldinsight.com/reprints A re-evaluation of conï ¬â€šict theory 201